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Indeed, despite the fact that initial trials of cardiovascular gene therapy targeted patients with end-stage vascular disease, including critical limb ischemia and refractory myocardial ischemia, the mortality for patients enrolled in clinical trials of cardiovascular gene therapy reported to date compares favorably with mortality for similar groups of patients in contemporary controlled studies of medical or interventional therapies. The most common morbidity reported after cardiovascular gene transfer is lower extremity edema; in contrast to data involving genetically engineered mice, however, evidence of life- or limb-threatening edema has not been described in any patients, including patients after gene transfer for myocardial ischemia. Concerns regarding the potential for angiogenic cytokines to promote the progression of atherosclerosis are not supported by angiographic follow-up of patients with coronary or peripheral vascular disease. The levels and duration of gene expression investigated for therapeutic angiogenesis transfer have been unassociated with hemangioma formation. Likewise, there is little evidence from either preclinical or clinical studies to support the notion that the administration of angiogenic growth factors, per se, is sufficient to stimulate the growth of neoplasms. 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