{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,5]],"date-time":"2026-06-05T05:23:39Z","timestamp":1780637019288,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":25,"publisher":"MIT Press - Journals","issue":"1","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Artificial Life"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:p> Completely soft and flexible robots offer to revolutionize fields ranging from search and rescue to endoscopic surgery. One of the outstanding challenges in this burgeoning field is the chicken-and-egg problem of body-brain design: Development of locomotion requires the preexistence of a locomotion-capable body, and development of a location-capable body requires the preexistence of a locomotive gait. This problem is compounded by the high degree of coupling between the material properties of a soft body (such as stiffness or damping coefficients) and the effectiveness of a gait. This article synthesizes four years of research into soft robotics, in particular describing three approaches to the co-discovery of soft robot morphology and control. In the first, muscle placement and firing patterns are coevolved for a fixed body shape with fixed material properties. In the second, the material properties of a simulated soft body coevolve alongside locomotive gaits, with body shape and muscle placement fixed. In the third, a developmental encoding is used to scalably grow elaborate soft body shapes from a small seed structure. Considerations of the simulation time and the challenges of physically implementing soft robots in the real world are discussed. <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/artl_a_00101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2013,2,1]],"date-time":"2013-02-01T18:35:16Z","timestamp":1359743716000},"page":"143-162","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":65,"title":["Growing and Evolving Soft Robots"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"20","author":[{"given":"John","family":"Rieffel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Union College"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Davis","family":"Knox","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Union College"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Schuyler","family":"Smith","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Union College"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Barry","family":"Trimmer","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tufts University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"281","reference":[{"key":"R1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-31989-4_3"},{"key":"R2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1570256.1570419"},{"key":"R3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CEC.2002.1004528"},{"key":"R4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-4-431-67869-4_12"},{"key":"R5","first-page":"829","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Genetic and Evolutionary Computation Conference (GECCO-2001)","author":"Bongard J. 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