{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,19]],"date-time":"2026-06-19T01:00:13Z","timestamp":1781830813338,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":215,"publisher":"MIT Press","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Artificial Life"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Self-organization can be broadly defined as the ability of a system to display ordered spatiotemporal patterns solely as the result of the interactions among the system components. Processes of this kind characterize both living and artificial systems, making self-organization a concept that is at the basis of several disciplines, from physics to biology and engineering. Placed at the frontiers between disciplines, artificial life (ALife) has heavily borrowed concepts and tools from the study of self-organization, providing mechanistic interpretations of lifelike phenomena as well as useful constructivist approaches to artificial system design. Despite its broad usage within ALife, the concept of self-organization has been often excessively stretched or misinterpreted, calling for a clarification that could help with tracing the borders between what can and cannot be considered self-organization. In this review, we discuss the fundamental aspects of self-organization and list the main usages within three primary ALife domains, namely \u201csoft\u201d (mathematical\/computational modeling), \u201chard\u201d (physical robots), and \u201cwet\u201d (chemical\/biological systems) ALife. We also provide a classification to locate this research. Finally, we discuss the usefulness of self-organization and related concepts within ALife studies, point to perspectives and challenges for future research, and list open questions. We hope that this work will motivate discussions related to self-organization in ALife and related fields.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/artl_a_00324","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,7,22]],"date-time":"2020-07-22T14:53:58Z","timestamp":1595429638000},"page":"391-408","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["Self-Organization and Artificial Life"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Carlos","family":"Gershenson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Universidad Nacional Aut\u00f3noma de M\u00e9xico, Instituto de Investigaciones en Matem\u00e1ticas Aplicadas y en Sistemas, Centro de Ciencias de la Complejidad."},{"name":"ITMO University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Vito","family":"Trianni","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Italian National Research Council, Institute of Cognitive Sciences and Technologies."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Justin","family":"Werfel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Harvard University, Wyss Institute for Biologically Inspired Engineering."}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Hiroki","family":"Sayama","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Binghamton University, Center for Collective Dynamics of Complex Systems."},{"name":"Waseda University, Waseda Innovation Laboratory"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"281","reference":[{"key":"bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/7968"},{"key":"bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_a_00153"},{"key":"bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/S0218127408021750"},{"key":"bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.plrev.2016.08.015"},{"key":"bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2014.00008"},{"key":"bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.98.095702"},{"key":"bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl.2009.Ampatzis.013"},{"key":"bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00221309.1947.9918144"},{"key":"bib9","first-page":"255","volume-title":"Principles of self-organization","author":"Ashby W. R.","year":"1962"},{"key":"bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12064-011-0140-1"},{"key":"bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1152934.1152937"},{"key":"bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/357057a0"},{"key":"bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00178a073"},{"key":"bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/342780a0"},{"key":"bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevA.38.364"},{"key":"bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TSMCB.2006.881299"},{"key":"bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/9780262029438.001.0001"},{"key":"bib18","volume-title":"Proceedings of ALife IV","author":"Beckers R.","year":"1994"},{"key":"bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454600300103683"},{"key":"bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_e_00121"},{"key":"bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl.2009.16.1.16103"},{"key":"bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1133687"},{"key":"bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ecolmodel.2004.01.011"},{"key":"bib24","volume-title":"Vehicles: Experiments in synthetic psychology","author":"Braitenberg V.","year":"1986"},{"key":"bib25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl_a_00044"},{"key":"bib26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/neco.1989.1.2.253"},{"key":"bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-3184-5_8"},{"key":"bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsif.2010.0524"},{"key":"bib29","volume-title":"Self-organization in biological systems","author":"Camazine S.","year":"2003"},{"key":"bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0190100"},{"key":"bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_a_00243"},{"key":"bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_a_00255"},{"key":"bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/la502624f"},{"key":"bib34","first-page":"81","volume-title":"Cellular automata","author":"Codd E. F.","year":"1968"},{"key":"bib35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jtbi.2002.3065"},{"key":"bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.65.851"},{"key":"bib37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nphys2190"},{"key":"bib38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl_a_00030"},{"key":"bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454601753238636"},{"key":"bib40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/1290.001.0001"},{"key":"bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:AURO.0000033973.24945.f3"},{"key":"bib42","volume-title":"Computational intelligence: Principles and practice","author":"Dorigo M.","year":"2006"},{"key":"bib43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ALIFE.2011.5954671"},{"key":"bib44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-33902-8"},{"key":"bib45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/9898.001.0001"},{"key":"bib46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/3374.001.0001"},{"key":"bib47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jtbi.1993.1007"},{"key":"bib48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_a_00188"},{"key":"bib49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/1-4020-3917-4"},{"key":"bib50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-53734-9_2"},{"key":"bib51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11047-012-9324-y"},{"key":"bib52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/1.1681288"},{"key":"bib53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11721-014-0092-4"},{"key":"bib54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1504\/IJBIC.2011.041144"},{"key":"bib55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_a_00096"},{"key":"bib56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0109966"},{"key":"bib57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogsys.2018.09.018"},{"key":"bib58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-0883-6_11"},{"key":"bib59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1002903"},{"key":"bib60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1059712309103430"},{"key":"bib61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl.2008.14.4.14400"},{"key":"bib62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/S0219525910002712"},{"key":"bib64","volume-title":"Design and control of self-organizing systems","author":"Gershenson C.","year":"2007"},{"key":"bib65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12064-011-0144-x"},{"key":"bib66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10699-012-9305-8"},{"key":"bib67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_a_00112"},{"key":"bib69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2020.00041"},{"key":"bib70","first-page":"4","volume":"1","author":"Gershenson C.","year":"2014","journal-title":"Systema: Connecting matter, life, culture and technology"},{"key":"bib71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cplx.21736"},{"key":"bib72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-39432-7_65"},{"key":"bib73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/isal_a_00094"},{"key":"bib74","volume-title":"Artificial Societies: The computer simulation of social life","author":"Gilbert N.","year":"1995"},{"key":"bib75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspa.2012.0637"},{"key":"bib76","volume-title":"Thermodynamic theory of structure, stability and fluctuations","author":"Glansdorff P.","year":"1971"},{"key":"bib77","volume-title":"Wonderful life: The Burgess shale and the nature of history","author":"Gould S. J.","year":"1990"},{"key":"bib78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/437636a"},{"key":"bib79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trechm.2019.07.004"},{"key":"bib80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-01284-6"},{"key":"bib81","first-page":"9","volume-title":"Self-organizing systems: An interdisciplinary approach","author":"Haken H.","year":"1981"},{"key":"bib82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-662-07893-8"},{"key":"bib83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1144259"},{"key":"bib84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1089904"},{"key":"bib85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/ja0706955"},{"key":"bib86","volume-title":"The organization of behavior: A neuropsychological theory","author":"Hebb D. O.","year":"1949"},{"key":"bib87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.18564\/jasss.3511"},{"key":"bib88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnsys.2014.00166"},{"key":"bib89","first-page":"45","volume-title":"Worldviews, science and us","author":"Heylighen F.","year":"2006"},{"key":"bib90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/beheco\/arq149"},{"key":"bib91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rspb.1995.0037"},{"key":"bib92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-19167-1_1"},{"key":"bib93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_a_00220"},{"key":"bib94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/4702"},{"key":"bib95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.92.074105"},{"key":"bib96","volume-title":"The scientific roots of synergy: And how to make cooperation successful","author":"Jaffe K.","year":"2017"},{"key":"bib97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/105971239700600205"},{"key":"bib98","first-page":"107","volume":"39","author":"Juarrero-Roqu\u00e9 A.","year":"1985","journal-title":"The Review of Metaphysics"},{"key":"bib99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1063\/1.5038337"},{"key":"bib100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-5193(69)90015-0"},{"key":"bib101","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1093\/oso\/9780195079517.001.0001","volume-title":"The origins of order","author":"Kauffman S. A.","year":"1993"},{"key":"bib102","volume-title":"Dynamic patterns: The self-organization of brain and behavior","author":"Kelso J. S.","year":"1997"},{"key":"bib103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ICNN.1995.488968"},{"key":"bib104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1059712309104966"},{"key":"bib105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1368393"},{"key":"bib106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1561\/2300000044"},{"key":"bib107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454602320184248"},{"key":"bib108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/mind\/LX.237.35"},{"key":"bib109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physa.2014.09.001"},{"key":"bib110","volume-title":"Self-organizing maps","author":"Kohonen T.","year":"2000","edition":"3"},{"key":"bib111","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12064-020-00313-7"},{"key":"bib112","first-page":"431","volume-title":"ECAL 2011","author":"Kreyssig P.","year":"2011"},{"key":"bib113","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1910837117"},{"key":"bib114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11721-008-0021-5"},{"key":"bib115","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454603322392451"},{"key":"bib116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2789(84)90256-2"},{"key":"bib117","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0167-2789(86)90237-X"},{"key":"bib118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454602320991864"},{"key":"bib119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1525\/aa.1993.95.1.02a00050"},{"key":"bib120","volume-title":"The making of a fly: The genetics of animal design","author":"Lawrence P. A.","year":"1992"},{"key":"bib121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1167742"},{"key":"bib122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/369215a0"},{"key":"bib123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1039\/C7CS00115K"},{"key":"bib124","first-page":"1075","volume":"55","author":"Levin S. A.","year":"2005","journal-title":"AIBS Bulletin"},{"key":"bib125","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.63.017101"},{"key":"bib126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl.1993.1.1_2.15"},{"key":"bib127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl_a_00067"},{"key":"bib128","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01808123"},{"key":"bib129","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.sysarc.2006.02.002"},{"key":"bib130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.061535198"},{"key":"bib131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-8947-4"},{"key":"bib132","first-page":"261","volume-title":"Genetic and cultural evolution of cooperation","author":"Michod R. E.","year":"2003"},{"key":"bib133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10539-009-9178-6"},{"key":"bib134","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ROBOT.1994.351257"},{"key":"bib135","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevE.78.011913"},{"key":"bib136","volume-title":"Self-organization in non-equilibrium systems: From dissipative structures to order through fluctuations","author":"Nicolis G.","year":"1977"},{"key":"bib137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/app8050729"},{"key":"bib138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ALIFE.2007.367788"},{"key":"bib139","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ALIFE.2009.4937687"},{"key":"bib140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-009-3757-4_14"},{"key":"bib141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-017-01161-8"},{"key":"bib142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.261.5118.189"},{"key":"bib143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1145803"},{"key":"bib144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-00616-6_5"},{"key":"bib145","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-008045157-2\/50081-X"},{"key":"bib146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-540-39432-7_72"},{"key":"bib147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-84628-982-8_2"},{"key":"bib148","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1142\/S021952591303001X"},{"key":"bib149","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9780470779446"},{"key":"bib150","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2976\/1.3233933"},{"key":"bib151","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-642-53734-9"},{"key":"bib152","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cplx.20249"},{"key":"bib153","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/e16105232"},{"key":"bib154","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/nchem.2617"},{"key":"bib155","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/9780262182683.001.0001"},{"key":"bib156","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1093669"},{"key":"bib157","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454603322392479"},{"key":"bib158","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.259.5099.1282"},{"key":"bib159","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-73008-0_32"},{"key":"bib160","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0140950"},{"key":"bib161","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/37402.37406"},{"key":"bib162","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1254295"},{"key":"bib163","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0022250X.1971.9989791"},{"key":"bib164","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cplx.20060"},{"key":"bib165","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/02783640122067570"},{"key":"bib166","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454699568818"},{"key":"bib167","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454604322875922"},{"key":"bib168","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl.2009.15.1.15107"},{"key":"bib169","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/ALIFE.2011.5954667"},{"key":"bib170","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2330163.2330245"},{"key":"bib171","volume-title":"Introduction to the modeling and analysis of complex systems","author":"Sayama H.","year":"2015"},{"key":"bib172","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-030-38965-9_12"},{"key":"bib173","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TCYB.2015.2429118"},{"key":"bib174","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0022250X.1971.9989794"},{"key":"bib175","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/srep37969"},{"key":"bib176","unstructured":"Shalizi, C. R. (2001). Causal architecture, complexity and self-organization in time series and cellular automata. PhD thesis, University of Wisconsin at Madison."},{"key":"bib177","volume-title":"The sciences of the artificial","author":"Simon H. A.","year":"1969"},{"key":"bib178","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454698568576"},{"issue":"1807","key":"bib179","volume":"361","author":"Sk\u00e5r J.","year":"2003","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series A"},{"key":"bib180","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aau9178"},{"key":"bib181","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454603322694825"},{"key":"bib182","first-page":"102","volume-title":"The artificial life route to artificial intelligence: Building embodied situated agents","author":"Steels L.","year":"1993"},{"key":"bib183","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl.1995.2.3.319"},{"key":"bib184","volume-title":"Cahiers du CREA","volume":"8","author":"Stengers I.","year":"1985"},{"key":"bib185","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl.2006.12.4.461"},{"key":"bib186","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/ARTL_a_00210"},{"key":"bib187","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/106454699568700"},{"key":"bib188","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00422-006-0080-x"},{"key":"bib189","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11721-008-0016-2"},{"key":"bib190","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1952.0012"},{"key":"bib191","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2017.00009"},{"key":"bib192","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10458-015-9323-3"},{"key":"bib193","first-page":"434","volume-title":"European Conference on Artificial Life","author":"Van Segbroeck S.","year":"2009"},{"key":"bib194","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.87.228301"},{"key":"bib195","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0303-2647(74)90031-8"},{"key":"bib196","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/scirobotics.aat3536"},{"key":"bib197","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/PhysRevLett.75.1226"},{"key":"bib198","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physrep.2012.03.004"},{"key":"bib199","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/IROS.2016.7759265"},{"key":"bib200","first-page":"31","volume-title":"Self-organizing systems","author":"von Foerster H.","year":"1960"},{"key":"bib201","volume-title":"The theory of self-reproducing automata","author":"von Neumann J.","year":"1966"},{"key":"bib202","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1021\/ja00105a004"},{"key":"bib203","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0550-42"},{"key":"bib204","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0851-60"},{"key":"bib205","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cplx.20346"},{"key":"bib206","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1162\/artl_a_00029"},{"key":"bib207","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00127471"},{"key":"bib208","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1245842"},{"key":"bib209","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1070821"},{"key":"bib210","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1103\/RevModPhys.55.601"},{"key":"bib211","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/311419a0"},{"key":"bib212","volume-title":"A new kind of science","author":"Wolfram S.","year":"2002"},{"key":"bib213","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/scientificamerican0313-60"},{"key":"bib214","first-page":"169","volume-title":"Saga","author":"Yang X.-S.","year":"2009"},{"key":"bib215","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2007.339623"},{"key":"bib216","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0025-5564(84)90060-9"},{"key":"bib217","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/435163a"}],"container-title":["Artificial Life"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/www.mitpressjournals.org\/doi\/pdf\/10.1162\/artl_a_00324","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,10]],"date-time":"2024-08-10T15:12:06Z","timestamp":1723302726000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/artl\/article\/26\/3\/391-408\/93243"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]},"references-count":215,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1162\/artl_a_00324"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/artl_a_00324","relation":{},"ISSN":["1064-5462","1530-9185"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1064-5462","type":"print"},{"value":"1530-9185","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2020,9]]}}}