{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T15:13:12Z","timestamp":1787238792239,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":108,"publisher":"MIT Press","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,30]],"date-time":"2024-07-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1722297600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":211,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["direct.mit.edu"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Large language models (LLMs) have garnered a great deal of attention for their exceptional generative performance on commonsense and reasoning tasks. In this work, we investigate LLMs\u2019 capabilities for generalization using a particularly challenging type of statement: generics. Generics express generalizations (e.g., birds can fly) but do so without explicit quantification. They are notable because they generalize over their instantiations (e.g., sparrows can fly) yet hold true even in the presence of exceptions (e.g., penguins do not). For humans, these generic generalizations play a fundamental role in cognition, concept acquisition, and intuitive reasoning. We investigate how LLMs respond to and reason about generics.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>To this end, we first propose a framework grounded in pragmatics to automatically generate both exceptions and instantiations \u2013 collectively exemplars. We make use of focus\u2014a pragmatic phenomenon that highlights meaning-bearing elements in a sentence\u2014to capture the full range of interpretations of generics across different contexts of use. This allows us to derive precise logical definitions for exemplars and operationalize them to automatically generate exemplars from LLMs. Using our system, we generate a dataset of \u223c370kexemplars across \u223c17k generics and conduct a human validation of a sample of the generated data.<\/jats:p>\n                  <jats:p>We use our final generated dataset to investigate how LLMs reason about generics. Humans have a documented tendency to conflate universally quantified statements (e.g., all birds can fly) with generics. Therefore, we probe whether LLMs exhibit similar overgeneralization behavior in terms of quantification and in property inheritance. We find that LLMs do show evidence of overgeneralization, although they sometimes struggle to reason about exceptions. Furthermore, we find that LLMs may exhibit similar non-logical behavior to humans when considering property inheritance from generics.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/coli_a_00530","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,30]],"date-time":"2024-07-30T11:09:21Z","timestamp":1722337761000},"page":"1211-1275","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Exceptions, Instantiations, and Overgeneralization: Insights into How Language Models Process Generics"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"50","author":[{"given":"Emily","family":"Allaway","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Edinburgh School of Informatics. emily.allaway@ed.ac.uk"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chandra","family":"Bhagavatula","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"ChipStack AI. chandra@chipstack.ai"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jena D.","family":"Hwang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Allen Institute for AI. jenah@allenai.org"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kathleen","family":"McKeown","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Columbia University Department of Computer Science. kathy@cs.columbia.edu"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sarah-Jane","family":"Leslie","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Princeton University Department of Philosophy and Center for Statistics and Machine Learning. sjleslie@princeton.edu"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024122021045478800_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2618","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.eacl-main.192","article-title":"Penguins don\u2019t fly: Reasoning about generics through instantiations and exceptions","volume-title":"Conference of the European Chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics","author":"Allaway","year":"2023"},{"key":"2024122021045478800_bib2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Towards countering essentialism through social bias reasoning","volume-title":"Workshop on NLP for Positive Impact at EMNLP","author":"Allaway","year":"2022"},{"key":"2024122021045478800_bib3","first-page":"300","article-title":"What some generic sentences mean","author":"Asher","year":"1995","journal-title":"The Generic Book"},{"key":"2024122021045478800_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9614","DOI":"10.18653\/v1\/2023.acl-long.535","article-title":"I2d2: Inductive knowledge distillation with neurologic and self-imitation","volume-title":"Annual Meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics","author":"Bhagavatula","year":"2022"},{"key":"2024122021045478800_bib5","article-title":"GenericsKB: A knowledge base of generic statements","author":"Bhakthavatsalam","year":"2020","journal-title":"ArXiv"},{"key":"2024122021045478800_bib6","first-page":"483","article-title":"The logic of Inheritance in frame systems","volume-title":"IJCAI","author":"Brewka","year":"1987"},{"key":"2024122021045478800_bib7","article-title":"Language models are few-shot learners","author":"Brown","year":"2020","journal-title":"arXiv preprint arXiv:2005.14165"},{"key":"2024122021045478800_bib8","unstructured":"Carlson, Greg N.\n          \n          1977. 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