{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,17]],"date-time":"2026-05-17T06:13:34Z","timestamp":1778998414474,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MIT Press - Journals","issue":"9","content-domain":{"domain":["direct.mit.edu"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,9,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>Humans can adapt their behavior by learning from the consequences of their own actions or by observing others. Gradual active learning of action\u2013outcome contingencies is accompanied by a shift from feedback- to response-based performance monitoring. This shift is reflected by complementary learning-related changes of two ACC-driven ERP components, the feedback-related negativity (FRN) and the error-related negativity (ERN), which have both been suggested to signal events \u201cworse than expected,\u201d that is, a negative prediction error. Although recent research has identified comparable components for observed behavior and outcomes (observational ERN and FRN), it is as yet unknown, whether these components are similarly modulated by prediction errors and thus also reflect behavioral adaptation. In this study, two groups of 15 participants learned action\u2013outcome contingencies either actively or by observation. In active learners, FRN amplitude for negative feedback decreased and ERN amplitude in response to erroneous actions increased with learning, whereas observational ERN and FRN in observational learners did not exhibit learning-related changes. Learning performance, assessed in test trials without feedback, was comparable between groups, as was the ERN following actively performed errors during test trials. In summary, the results show that action\u2013outcome associations can be learned similarly well actively and by observation. The mechanisms involved appear to differ, with the FRN in active learning reflecting the integration of information about own actions and the accompanying outcomes.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00612","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,3,26]],"date-time":"2014-03-26T01:41:56Z","timestamp":1395798116000},"page":"2111-2127","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":43,"title":["From Feedback- to Response-based Performance Monitoring in Active and Observational Learning"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"26","author":[{"given":"Christian","family":"Bellebaum","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1Heinrich Heine University D\u00fcsseldorf"},{"name":"2Ruhr University Bochum"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Colosio","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3University of Padova"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021073000573121200_R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.2921","article-title":"Medial prefrontal cortex as an action\u2013outcome predictor.","volume":"14","author":"Alexander","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2008.06138.x","article-title":"Learning-related changes in reward expectancy are reflected in the feedback-related negativity.","volume":"27","author":"Bellebaum","year":"2008","journal-title":"European Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bbr.2011.10.042","article-title":"The neural coding of expected and unexpected monetary performance outcomes: Dissociations between active and observational learning.","volume":"227","author":"Bellebaum","year":"2012","journal-title":"Behavioural Brain Research"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2874","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhq038","article-title":"It was not MY fault: Event-related brain potentials in active and observational learning from feedback.","volume":"20","author":"Bellebaum","year":"2010","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1037\/a0022536","article-title":"Processing of expected and unexpected monetary performance outcomes in healthy older subjects.","volume":"125","author":"Bellebaum","year":"2011","journal-title":"Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/0166-2236(91)90179-X","article-title":"Dopaminergic innervation of the cerebral cortex: Unexpected differences between rodents and primates.","volume":"14","author":"Berger","year":"1991","journal-title":"Trends in Neurosciences"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e86","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0000086","article-title":"Error processing in Huntington's disease.","volume":"1","author":"Beste","year":"2006","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"619","DOI":"10.1016\/S0896-6273(01)00303-8","article-title":"Functional imaging of neural responses to expectancy and experience of monetary gains and losses.","volume":"30","author":"Breiter","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"14431","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1003111107","article-title":"Neural mechanisms of observational learning.","volume":"107","author":"Burke","year":"2010","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A."},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"15048","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3164-11.2011","article-title":"Double dissociation of stimulus-value and action-value learning in humans with orbitofrontal or anterior cingulate cortex damage.","volume":"31","author":"Camille","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"353","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.11.065","article-title":"Learning from other people's experience: A neuroimaging study of decisional interactive-learning.","volume":"55","author":"Canessa","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2021073000573121200_R12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"8","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2012.00008","article-title":"Is your error my concern? 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