{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,2,6]],"date-time":"2026-02-06T21:51:53Z","timestamp":1770414713448,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":56,"publisher":"MIT Press","issue":"9","content-domain":{"domain":["direct.mit.edu"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title><jats:p>Refreshing is the component cognitive process of directing reflective attention to one of several active mental representations. Previous studies using fMRI suggested that refresh tasks involve a component process of initiating refreshing as well as the top\u2013down modulation of representational regions central to refreshing. However, those studies were limited by fMRI's low temporal resolution. In this study, we used EEG to examine the time course of refreshing on the scale of milliseconds rather than seconds. ERP analyses showed that a typical refresh task does have a distinct electrophysiological response as compared to a control condition and includes at least two main temporal components: an earlier (\u223c400 msec) positive peak reminiscent of a P3 response and a later (\u223c800\u20131400 msec) sustained positivity over several sites reminiscent of the late directing attention positivity. Overall, the evoked potentials for refreshing representations from three different visual categories (faces, scenes, words) were similar, but multivariate pattern analysis showed that some category information was nonetheless present in the EEG signal. When related to previous fMRI studies, these results are consistent with a two-phase model, with the first phase dominated by frontal control signals involved in initiating refreshing and the second by the top\u2013down modulation of posterior perceptual cortical areas that constitutes refreshing a representation. This study also lays the foundation for future studies of the neural correlates of reflective attention at a finer temporal resolution than is possible using fMRI.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00823","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2015,5,11]],"date-time":"2015-05-11T12:37:20Z","timestamp":1431347840000},"page":"1823-1839","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":24,"title":["Electrophysiological Correlates of Refreshing: Event-related Potentials Associated with Directing Reflective Attention to Face, Scene, or Word Representations"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"27","author":[{"given":"Matthew R.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1Yale University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Gregory","family":"McCarthy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1Yale University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Kathleen A.","family":"Muller","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2Sharp Memorial Hospital, San Diego, CA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Samuel N.","family":"Brudner","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"3Duke University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Marcia K.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1Yale University"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021073000534362000_R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-psych-120710-100422","article-title":"Working memory: Theories, models, and controversies","volume":"63","author":"Baddeley","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1037\/a0022324","article-title":"On the law relating processing to storage in working memory","volume":"118","author":"Barrouillet","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing","volume":"57","author":"Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, Methodological"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1996.8.6.551","article-title":"Electrophysiological studies of face perception in humans","volume":"8","author":"Bentin","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9353","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.1897-04.2004","article-title":"Localizing P300 generators in visual target and distractor processing: A combined event-related potential and functional magnetic resonance imaging study","volume":"24","author":"Bledowski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2001.1019","article-title":"The role of frontopolar cortex in subgoal processing during working memory","volume":"15","author":"Braver","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.psych.093008.100427","article-title":"A taxonomy of external and internal attention","volume":"62","author":"Chun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Annual Review of Psychology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"520","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.10.026","article-title":"Memory: Enduring traces of perceptual and reflective attention","volume":"72","author":"Chun","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"604","DOI":"10.1038\/386604a0","article-title":"Temporal dynamics of brain activation during a working memory task","volume":"386","author":"Cohen","year":"1997","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"415","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(03)00197-9","article-title":"Persistent activity in the prefrontal cortex during working memory","volume":"7","author":"Curtis","year":"2003","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1006\/brcg.1999.1096","article-title":"Maintenance versus manipulation of information held in working memory: An event-related fMRI study","volume":"41","author":"D'Esposito","year":"1999","journal-title":"Brain and Cognition"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"388","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2008.07.004","article-title":"Parahippocampal and retrosplenial contributions to human spatial navigation","volume":"12","author":"Epstein","year":"2008","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1038\/33402","article-title":"A cortical representation of the local visual environment","volume":"392","author":"Epstein","year":"1998","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"355","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(01)00019-7","article-title":"The novelty P3: An event-related brain potential (ERP) sign of the brain's evaluation of novelty","volume":"25","author":"Friedman","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"870","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2001.1037","article-title":"Thresholding of statistical maps in functional neuroimaging using the false discovery rate","volume":"15","author":"Genovese","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1176","DOI":"10.1162\/089892903322598139","article-title":"Orienting attention to locations in internal representations","volume":"15","author":"Griffin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R17","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"223","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1989.1.3.223","article-title":"Neural processes involved in directing attention","volume":"1","author":"Harter","year":"1989","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2425","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1063736","article-title":"Distributed and overlapping representations of faces and objects in ventral temporal cortex","volume":"293","author":"Haxby","year":"2001","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1241","DOI":"10.1016\/S1388-2457(00)00313-8","article-title":"Shifting visual attention in space: An electrophysiological analysis using high spatial resolution mapping","volume":"111","author":"Hopf","year":"2000","journal-title":"Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"268","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1992.4.3.268","article-title":"MEM: Mechanisms of recollection","volume":"4","author":"Johnson","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"265","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/13.3.265","article-title":"fMRI evidence for an organization of prefrontal cortex by both type of process and type of information","volume":"13","author":"Johnson","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"339","DOI":"10.3758\/CABN.5.3.339","article-title":"Using fMRI to investigate a component process of reflection: Prefrontal correlates of refreshing a just-activated representation","volume":"5","author":"Johnson","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"64","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00411","article-title":"Second thoughts versus second looks: An age-related deficit in reflectively refreshing just-active information","volume":"13","author":"Johnson","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1104","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797612466414","article-title":"Foraging for thought: An inhibition-of-return-like effect resulting from directing attention within working memory","volume":"24","author":"Johnson","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2320","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2008.21183","article-title":"Top\u2013down enhancement and suppression of activity in category-selective extrastriate cortex from an act of reflective attention","volume":"21","author":"Johnson","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"169","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199217298.003.0010","article-title":"Toward characterizing the neural correlates of component processes of cognition","volume-title":"Neuroimaging of human memory: Linking cognitive processes to neural systems","author":"Johnson","year":"2009"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.05.017","article-title":"A brief thought can modulate activity in extrastriate visual areas: Top\u2013down effects of refreshing just-seen visual stimuli","volume":"37","author":"Johnson","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4302","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.17-11-04302.1997","article-title":"The fusiform face area: A module in human extrastriate cortex specialized for face perception","volume":"17","author":"Kanwisher","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1997.9.1.75","article-title":"Distributed cortical network for visual attention","volume":"9","author":"Knight","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"594","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1142995","article-title":"Anterior prefrontal function and the limits of human decision-making","volume":"318","author":"Koechlin","year":"2007","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e22909","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0022909","article-title":"Anterior medial prefrontal cortex exhibits activation during task preparation but deactivation during task execution","volume":"6","author":"Koshino","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLOS ONE"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"957","DOI":"10.1109\/TPAMI.2005.127","article-title":"Sparse multinomial logistic regression: Fast algorithms and generalization bounds","volume":"27","author":"Krishnapuram","year":"2005","journal-title":"IEEE Transactions on Pattern Analysis and Machine Intelligence"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_00305","article-title":"Decoding attended information in short-term memory: An EEG study","volume":"25","author":"LaRocque","year":"2013","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2072","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhl116","article-title":"Attentional modulation of object representations in working memory","volume":"17","author":"Lepsien","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"605","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1997.9.5.605","article-title":"Face-specific processing in the human fusiform gyrus","volume":"9","author":"McCarthy","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.24.1.167","article-title":"An integrative theory of prefrontal cortex function","volume":"24","author":"Miller","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annual Review of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"630","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03206543","article-title":"A lifespan database of adult facial stimuli","volume":"36","author":"Minear","year":"2004","journal-title":"Behavior Research Methods, Instruments, and Computers"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R38","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2006.07.005","article-title":"Beyond mind-reading: Multi-voxel pattern analysis of fMRI data","volume":"10","author":"Norman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1603","article-title":"Working memory in primate sensory systems","volume":"6","author":"Pasternak","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature Reviews Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2128","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2007.04.019","article-title":"Updating P300: An integrative theory of P3a and P3b","volume":"118","author":"Polich","year":"2007","journal-title":"Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2005.12.012","article-title":"Neuropsychology and neuropharmacology of P3a and P3b","volume":"60","author":"Polich","year":"2006","journal-title":"International Journal of Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/0301-0511(95)05130-9","article-title":"Cognitive and biological determinants of P300: An integrative review","volume":"41","author":"Polich","year":"1995","journal-title":"Biological Psychology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70871-2","article-title":"Seeking the neural substrates of visual working memory storage","volume":"39","author":"Postle","year":"2003","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2005.03.017","article-title":"Directing the mind's eye: Prefrontal, inferior and medial temporal mechanisms for visual working memory","volume":"15","author":"Ranganath","year":"2005","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Neurobiology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"135","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70451-9","article-title":"Refreshing: A minimal executive function","volume":"43","author":"Raye","year":"2007","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1006\/nimg.2001.0983","article-title":"Neuroimaging a single thought: Dorsolateral pFC activity associated with refreshing just-activated information","volume":"15","author":"Raye","year":"2002","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"852","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2008.20508","article-title":"Refreshing one of several active representations: Behavioral and functional magnetic resonance imaging differences between young and older adults","volume":"20","author":"Raye","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"601","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.07.002","article-title":"Similar and dissociable mechanisms for attention to internal versus external information","volume":"48","author":"Roth","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X03000165","article-title":"Working memory retention systems: A state of activated long-term memory","volume":"26","author":"Ruchkin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Behavioral and Brain Sciences"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1615\/CritRevNeurobiol.v14.i3-4.20","article-title":"Neural origins of the P300","volume":"14","author":"Soltani","year":"2000","journal-title":"Critical Reviews in Neurobiology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"479","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9868.00346","article-title":"A direct approach to false discovery rates","volume":"64","author":"Storey","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Series B, Statistical Methodology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1436","DOI":"10.1126\/science.155.3768.1436","article-title":"Information delivery and the sensory evoked potential","volume":"155","author":"Sutton","year":"1967","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R53","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"343","DOI":"10.1017\/S0140525X00058015","article-title":"Event-related potentials and cognition: A critique of the context updating hypothesis and an alternative interpretation of P3","volume":"11","author":"Verleger","year":"1988","journal-title":"Behavioral and Brain Sciences"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R54","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainresbull.2007.03.003","article-title":"The cortical generators of P3a and P3b: A LORETA study","volume":"73","author":"Volpe","year":"2007","journal-title":"Brain Research Bulletin"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1574","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1998.79.3.1574","article-title":"Covert visual attention modulates face-specific activity in the human fusiform gyrus: fMRI study","volume":"79","author":"Wojciulik","year":"1998","journal-title":"Journal of Neurophysiology"},{"key":"2021073000534362000_R56","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1371","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2008.20094","article-title":"When a thought equals a look: Refreshing enhances perceptual memory","volume":"20","author":"Yi","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"}],"container-title":["Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/jocn\/article-pdf\/27\/9\/1823\/1949717\/jocn_a_00823.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"http:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/jocn\/article-pdf\/27\/9\/1823\/1949717\/jocn_a_00823.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,6,8]],"date-time":"2024-06-08T22:31:42Z","timestamp":1717885902000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/jocn\/article\/27\/9\/1823\/28416\/Electrophysiological-Correlates-of-Refreshing"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]]},"references-count":56,"journal-issue":{"issue":"9","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/jocn_a_00823","relation":{},"ISSN":["0898-929X","1530-8898"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0898-929X","type":"print"},{"value":"1530-8898","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2015,9]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2015,9,1]]}}}