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That is, instantaneously positive outcomes were generally consistent with task goals, whereas instantaneously negative outcomes were inconsistent with task goals. In this study, we disentangled these two outcome aspects in two experiments. Our results reveal an interaction of instantaneous and long-term outcome values. More precisely, our findings strongly suggest that the FRN effect is mainly driven by a reward positivity, which is evoked only by outcomes that possess an instantaneously positive value and also help the organism to reach its long-term goals. These findings add to a recent literature according to which the posterior midcingulate cortex acts as a hierarchical reinforcement learning system and suggest that this system integrates instant and long-term action\u2013outcome values. This, in turn, might be crucial for learning optimal behavioral strategies in a given setting.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01055","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,10,19]],"date-time":"2016-10-19T18:27:17Z","timestamp":1476901637000},"page":"424-434","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["The Feedback-related Negativity Reflects the Combination of Instantaneous and Long-term Values of Decision Outcomes"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Roman","family":"Osinsky","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1University of Osnabr\u00fcck"}]},{"given":"Natalie","family":"Ulrich","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1University of Osnabr\u00fcck"}]},{"given":"Patrick","family":"Mussel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2University of W\u00fcrzburg"}]},{"given":"Lena","family":"Feser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2University of W\u00fcrzburg"}]},{"given":"Aruni","family":"Gunawardena","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2University of W\u00fcrzburg"}]},{"given":"Johannes","family":"Hewig","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"2University of W\u00fcrzburg"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021073021061488900_R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3005","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3684-13.2014","article-title":"A single-trial estimation of the feedback-related negativity and its relation to BOLD responses in a time-estimation task","volume":"34","author":"Becker","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073021061488900_R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1823","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1460-9568.2008.06138.x","article-title":"Learning-related changes in reward expectancy are reflected in the feedback-related negativity","volume":"27","author":"Bellebaum","year":"2008","journal-title":"European Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073021061488900_R3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/0005-7916(94)90063-9","article-title":"Measuring emotion: The self-assessment manikin and the semantic differential","volume":"25","author":"Bradley","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry"},{"key":"2021073021061488900_R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1608","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2011.05.037","article-title":"Ventral striatal and medial prefrontal BOLD activation is correlated with reward-related electrocortical activity: A combined ERP and fMRI study","volume":"57","author":"Carlson","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2021073021061488900_R5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"968","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.11.056","article-title":"Reward expectation modulates feedback-related negativity and EEG spectra","volume":"35","author":"Cohen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2021073021061488900_R6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4421-06.2007","article-title":"Reinforcement learning signals predict future decisions","volume":"27","author":"Cohen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073021061488900_R7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"776","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00776","article-title":"Neural correlates of uncertain decision making: ERP evidence from the Iowa Gambling Task","volume":"7","author":"Cui","year":"2013","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073021061488900_R8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00896.2006","article-title":"Performance monitoring local field potentials in the medial frontal cortex of primates: Anterior cingulate cortex","volume":"99","author":"Emeric","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Neurophysiology"},{"key":"2021073021061488900_R9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"521","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2007.09.001","article-title":"Better or worse than expected? 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