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However, unexpectedness per se is not the only variable that modulates ACC\/mPFC activity, as studies reported its sensitivity to the salience of outcomes. In this study, mediofrontal negativity, a component of the event-related brain potential generated in ACC\/mPFC and coding for prediction errors, was measured in 48 participants performing a Pavlovian aversive conditioning task, during which aversive (thus salient) and neutral outcomes were unexpectedly shifted (i.e., anticipated or delayed) in time. Mediofrontal ERP signals of prediction error were observed for outcomes occurring at unexpected times but were specific for salient (shock-associated), as compared with neutral, outcomes. These findings have important implications for the theoretical accounts of ACC\/mPFC and suggest a critical role of timing and salience information in prediction error signaling.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01074","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2016,11,29]],"date-time":"2016-11-29T13:34:47Z","timestamp":1480426487000},"page":"718-727","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":33,"title":["Mediofrontal Negativity Signals Unexpected Timing of Salient Outcomes"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"29","author":[{"given":"Sara","family":"Garofalo","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"1University of Bologna"},{"name":"2University of Cambridge"}]},{"given":"Christopher","family":"Timmermann","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1University of Bologna"},{"name":"3Imperial College London"}]},{"given":"Simone","family":"Battaglia","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1University of Bologna"}]},{"given":"Martin E.","family":"Maier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1University of Bologna"},{"name":"4Catholic University of Eichst\u00e4tt-Ingolstadt"}]},{"given":"Giuseppe","family":"di Pellegrino","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"1University of Bologna"},{"name":"5Bangor University"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2021073021072339800_R1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.2921","article-title":"Medial prefrontal cortex as an action-outcome predictor","volume":"14","author":"Alexander","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073021072339800_R2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.3389\/fncom.2014.00069","article-title":"A general role for medial prefrontal cortex in event prediction","volume":"8","author":"Alexander","year":"2014","journal-title":"Frontiers in Computational Neuroscience"},{"key":"2021073021072339800_R3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2354","DOI":"10.1162\/NECO_a_00779","article-title":"Hierarchical error representation: A computational model of anterior cingulate and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex","volume":"27","author":"Alexander","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neural Computation"},{"key":"2021073021072339800_R4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2166","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.2000.84.4.2166","article-title":"Reward-predicting and reward-detecting neuronal activity in the primate supplementary eye field","volume":"84","author":"Amador","year":"2000","journal-title":"Journal of Neurophysiology"},{"key":"2021073021072339800_R5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1162\/neco.1995.7.6.1129","article-title":"An information-maximization approach to blind separation and blind deconvolution","volume":"7","author":"Bell","year":"1995","journal-title":"Neural Computation"},{"key":"2021073021072339800_R6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"755","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1764","article-title":"What makes us tick? 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