{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,29]],"date-time":"2026-09-29T08:19:50Z","timestamp":1790669990806,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":92,"publisher":"MIT Press","issue":"1","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["G024716N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G024716N"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003130","name":"Fonds Wetenschappelijk Onderzoek","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["G048119N"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["G048119N"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003130","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100014434","name":"Narodowa Agencja Wymiany Akademickiej","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["PPN\/BEK\/2018\/1\/00257"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PPN\/BEK\/2018\/1\/00257"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100014434","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100004281","name":"National Science Centre of Poland","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","award":["2015\/19\/B\/HS6\/01259"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2015\/19\/B\/HS6\/01259"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100004281","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"crossref"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["direct.mit.edu"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>The goal of temporal difference (TD) reinforcement learning is to maximize outcomes and improve future decision-making. It does so by utilizing a prediction error (PE), which quantifies the difference between the expected and the obtained outcome. In gambling tasks, however, decision-making cannot be improved because of the lack of learnability. On the basis of the idea that TD utilizes two independent bits of information from the PE (valence and surprise), we asked which of these aspects is affected when a task is not learnable. We contrasted behavioral data and ERPs in a learning variant and a gambling variant of a simple two-armed bandit task, in which outcome sequences were matched across tasks. Participants were explicitly informed that feedback could be used to improve performance in the learning task but not in the gambling task, and we predicted a corresponding modulation of the aspects of the PE. We used a model-based analysis of ERP data to extract the neural footprints of the valence and surprise information in the two tasks. Our results revealed that task learnability modulates reinforcement learning via the suppression of surprise processing but leaves the processing of valence unaffected. On the basis of our model and the data, we propose that task learnability can selectively suppress TD learning as well as alter behavioral adaptation based on a flexible cost\u2013benefit arbitration.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01777","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,9,21]],"date-time":"2021-09-21T18:08:44Z","timestamp":1632247724000},"page":"34-53","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":11,"title":["Task Learnability Modulates Surprise but Not Valence Processing for Reinforcement Learning in Probabilistic Choice Tasks"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"34","author":[{"given":"Franz","family":"Wurm","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Catholic University of Eichst\u00e4tt-Ingolstadt, Germany"},{"name":"Leiden University"},{"name":"Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Wioleta","family":"Walentowska","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland"},{"name":"Ghent University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Benjamin","family":"Ernst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Catholic University of Eichst\u00e4tt-Ingolstadt, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mario Carlo","family":"Severo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gilles","family":"Pourtois","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marco","family":"Steinhauser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Catholic University of Eichst\u00e4tt-Ingolstadt, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.2921","article-title":"Medial prefrontal cortex as an action\u2013outcome predictor","volume":"14","author":"Alexander","year":"2011","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2354","DOI":"10.1162\/NECO_a_00779","article-title":"Hierarchical error representation: A computational model of anterior cingulate and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex","volume":"27","author":"Alexander","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neural Computation"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"717","DOI":"10.1016\/j.physbeh.2005.08.061","article-title":"Neural bases of food-seeking: Affect, arousal and reward in corticostriatolimbic circuits","volume":"86","author":"Balleine","year":"2005","journal-title":"Physiology & Behavior"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1129","DOI":"10.1162\/neco.1995.7.6.1129","article-title":"An information\u2013maximization approach to blind separation and blind deconvolution","volume":"7","author":"Bell","year":"1995","journal-title":"Neural Computation"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.12390","article-title":"Time\u2013frequency theta and delta measures index separable components of feedback processing in a gambling task","volume":"52","author":"Bernat","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"262","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cognition.2008.08.011","article-title":"Hierarchically organized behavior and its neural foundations: A reinforcement learning perspective","volume":"113","author":"Botvinick","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cognition"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13389","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13389","article-title":"The feedback-related negativity indexes prediction error in active but not observational learning","volume":"56","author":"Burnside","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"936","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.2010.21456","article-title":"Feedback-related negativity codes prediction error but not behavioral adjustment during probabilistic reversal learning","volume":"23","author":"Chase","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"371","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.4421-06.2007","article-title":"Reinforcement learning signals predict future decisions","volume":"27","author":"Cohen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1264","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1150605","article-title":"BOLD responses reflecting dopaminergic signals in the human ventral tegmental area","volume":"319","author":"D'Ardenne","year":"2008","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780199600434.003.0001","article-title":"Trial-by-trial data analysis using computational models","volume-title":"Decision making, affect, and learning: Attention & performance XXIII","author":"Daw","year":"2011"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1204","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2011.02.027","article-title":"Model-based influences on humans' choices and striatal prediction errors","volume":"69","author":"Daw","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1704","DOI":"10.1038\/nn1560","article-title":"Uncertainty-based competition between prefrontal and dorsolateral striatal systems for behavioral control","volume":"8","author":"Daw","year":"2005","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"393","DOI":"10.1016\/B978-0-12-416008-8.00021-8","article-title":"Multiple systems for value learning","volume-title":"Neuroeconomics: Decision making and the brain","author":"Daw","year":"2013","edition":"2nd ed."},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"876","DOI":"10.1038\/nature04766","article-title":"Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans","volume":"441","author":"Daw","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"185","DOI":"10.1016\/j.conb.2008.08.003","article-title":"Reinforcement learning: The good, the bad and the ugly","volume":"18","author":"Dayan","year":"2008","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Neurobiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2003.10.009","article-title":"EEGLAB: An open source toolbox for analysis of single-trial EEG dynamics including independent component analysis","volume":"134","author":"Delorme","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience Methods"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1002\/0471214426.pas0312","article-title":"The role of learning in the operation of motivational systems","volume-title":"Steven's handbook of experimental psychology: Learning, motivation and emotion","author":"Dickinson","year":"2002"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13399","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13399","article-title":"Differential effects of instructed and objective feedback reliability on feedback-related brain activity","volume":"56","author":"Di Gregorio","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"767","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3981","article-title":"Model-based choices involve prospective neural activity","volume":"18","author":"Doll","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6188","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.6486-10.2011","article-title":"Dopaminergic genes predict individual differences in susceptibility to confirmation bias","volume":"31","author":"Doll","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"74","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2009.07.007","article-title":"Instructional control of reinforcement learning: A behavioral and neurocomputational investigation","volume":"1299","author":"Doll","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain Research"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2017.03.008","article-title":"Top\u2013down control over feedback processing: The probability of valid feedback affects feedback-related brain activity","volume":"115","author":"Ernst","year":"2017","journal-title":"Brain and Cognition"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"596","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-018-0591-7","article-title":"Effects of feedback reliability on feedback-related brain activity: A feedback valuation account","volume":"18","author":"Ernst","year":"2018","journal-title":"Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1243","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.07.006","article-title":"Real and fictive outcomes are processed differently but converge on a common adaptive mechanism","volume":"79","author":"Fischer","year":"2013","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1338","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2014.08.025","article-title":"Anterior cingulate activity to monetary loss and basal ganglia activity to monetary gain uniquely contribute to the feedback negativity","volume":"126","author":"Foti","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"220","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.08.035","article-title":"Variational free energy and the Laplace approximation","volume":"34","author":"Friston","year":"2007","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmp.2016.01.006","article-title":"Empirical priors for reinforcement learning models","volume":"71","author":"Gershman","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Mathematical Psychology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-015-0347-6","article-title":"Model-based learning protects against forming habits","volume":"15","author":"Gillan","year":"2015","journal-title":"Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"501","DOI":"10.1002\/wcs.57","article-title":"Model-based approaches to neuroimaging: Combining reinforcement learning theory with fMRI data","volume":"1","author":"Gl\u00e4scher","year":"2010","journal-title":"Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Cognitive Science"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1711","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2011.01273.x","article-title":"Mass univariate analysis of event-related brain potentials\/fields I: A critical tutorial review","volume":"48","author":"Groppe","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2007.00567.x","article-title":"It's worse than you thought: The feedback negativity and violations of reward prediction in gambling tasks","volume":"44","author":"Hajcak","year":"2007","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2013.06.025","article-title":"Theta and delta band activity explain N2 and P3 ERP component activity in a go\/no-go task","volume":"125","author":"Harper","year":"2014","journal-title":"Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.109.4.679","article-title":"The neural basis of human error processing: Reinforcement learning, dopamine, and the error-related negativity","volume":"109","author":"Holroyd","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"93","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2005.12.015","article-title":"The good, the bad and the neutral: Electrophysiological responses to feedback stimuli","volume":"1105","author":"Holroyd","year":"2006","journal-title":"Brain Research"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"59","DOI":"10.3758\/CABN.9.1.59","article-title":"When is an error not a prediction error? An electrophysiological investigation","volume":"9","author":"Holroyd","year":"2009","journal-title":"Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"688","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2008.00668.x","article-title":"The feedback correct-related positivity: Sensitivity of the event-related brain potential to unexpected positive feedback","volume":"45","author":"Holroyd","year":"2008","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1803","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01317","article-title":"Noradrenergic and cholinergic modulation of belief updating","volume":"30","author":"Jepma","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1005171","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1005171","article-title":"Catecholaminergic regulation of learning rate in a dynamic environment","volume":"12","author":"Jepma","year":"2016","journal-title":"PLoS Computational Biology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1002055","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1002055","article-title":"Speed\/accuracy trade-off between the habitual and the goal-directed processes","volume":"7","author":"Keramati","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS Computational Biology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"222","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2014.11.007","article-title":"A computational analysis of the neural bases of Bayesian inference","volume":"106","author":"Kolossa","year":"2015","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1321","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797617708288","article-title":"Cost\u2013benefit arbitration between multiple reinforcement-learning systems","volume":"28","author":"Kool","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1391","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_01263","article-title":"Planning complexity registers as a cost in metacontrol","volume":"30","author":"Kool","year":"2018","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-016-0442-3","article-title":"P300 amplitude variations, prior probabilities, and likelihoods: A Bayesian ERP study","volume":"16","author":"Kopp","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"175","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijpsycho.2017.11.007","article-title":"Event-related brain potentials and the study of reward processing: Methodological considerations","volume":"132","author":"Krigolson","year":"2018","journal-title":"International Journal of Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"555","DOI":"10.1901\/jeab.2005.110-04","article-title":"Dynamic response-by-response models of matching behavior in rhesus monkeys","volume":"84","author":"Lau","year":"2005","journal-title":"Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"287","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-neuro-062111-150512","article-title":"Neural basis of reinforcement learning and decision making","volume":"35","author":"Lee","year":"2012","journal-title":"Annual Review of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"687","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2013.11.028","article-title":"Neural computations underlying arbitration between model-based and model-free learning","volume":"81","author":"Lee","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"451","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2016.12.040","article-title":"Dynamic interaction between reinforcement learning and attention in multidimensional environments","volume":"93","author":"Leong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"177","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2007.03.024","article-title":"Nonparametric statistical testing of EEG- and MEG-data","volume":"164","author":"Maris","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience Methods"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12539","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2925-08.2008","article-title":"Trial-by-trial fluctuations in the event-related electroencephalogram reflect dynamic changes in the degree of surprise","volume":"28","author":"Mars","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1080\/17470211003668272","article-title":"Model-based analyses: Promises, pitfalls, and example applications to the study of cognitive control","volume":"65","author":"Mars","year":"2012","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"788","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn.1997.9.6.788","article-title":"Event-related brain potentials following incorrect feedback in a time-estimation task: Evidence for a \u201cgeneric\u201d neural system for error detection","volume":"9","author":"Miltner","year":"1997","journal-title":"Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1936","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.16-05-01936.1996","article-title":"A framework for mesencephalic dopamine systems based on predictive Hebbian learning","volume":"16","author":"Montague","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e46975","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.46975","article-title":"Statistical context dictates the relationship between feedback-related EEG signals and learning","volume":"8","author":"Nassar","year":"2019","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cobeha.2016.04.003","article-title":"Taming the beast: Extracting generalizable knowledge from computational models of cognition","volume":"11","author":"Nassar","year":"2016","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Behavioral Sciences"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1003015","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1003015","article-title":"A healthy fear of the unknown: Perspectives on the interpretation of parameter fits from computational models in neuroscience","volume":"9","author":"Nassar","year":"2013","journal-title":"PLoS Computational Biology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmp.2008.12.005","article-title":"Reinforcement learning in the brain","volume":"53","author":"Niv","year":"2009","journal-title":"Journal of Mathematical Psychology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8145","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.2978-14.2015","article-title":"Reinforcement learning in multidimensional environments relies on attention mechanisms","volume":"35","author":"Niv","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1390.022","article-title":"Model-based fMRI and its application to reward learning and decision making","volume":"1104","author":"O'Doherty","year":"2007","journal-title":"Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1005684","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1005684","article-title":"Confirmation bias in human reinforcement learning: Evidence from counterfactual feedback processing","volume":"13","author":"Palminteri","year":"2017","journal-title":"PLoS Computational Biology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"425","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2017.03.011","article-title":"The importance of falsification in computational cognitive modeling","volume":"21","author":"Palminteri","year":"2017","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1042","DOI":"10.1038\/nature05051","article-title":"Dopamine-dependent prediction errors underpin reward-seeking behaviour in humans","volume":"442","author":"Pessiglione","year":"2006","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1111\/1469-8986.3720127","article-title":"Guidelines for using human event-related potentials to study cognition: Recording standards and publication criteria","volume":"37","author":"Picton","year":"2000","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13616","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13616","article-title":"50+ years of P300: Where are we now?","volume":"57","author":"Polich","year":"2020","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"379","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8986.2008.00782.x","article-title":"Age, physical fitness, and attention: P3a and P3b","volume":"46","author":"Pontifex","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"971","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.08.065","article-title":"Bayesian model selection for group studies\u2014Revisited","volume":"84","author":"Rigoux","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1016\/j.brainres.2010.04.051","article-title":"Effects of learning on feedback-related brain potentials in a decision-making task","volume":"1342","author":"Sailer","year":"2010","journal-title":"Brain Research"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropsychologia.2014.06.004","article-title":"Mediofrontal event-related potentials in response to positive, negative and unsigned prediction errors","volume":"61","author":"Sambrook","year":"2014","journal-title":"Neuropsychologia"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"213","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000006","article-title":"A neural reward prediction error revealed by a meta-analysis of ERPs using great grand averages","volume":"141","author":"Sambrook","year":"2015","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"162","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.05.023","article-title":"Model-free and model-based reward prediction errors in EEG","volume":"178","author":"Sambrook","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2012.00304","article-title":"Event-related potential studies of outcome processing and feedback-guided learning","volume":"6","author":"San Mart\u00edn","year":"2012","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e13335","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.13335","article-title":"Cluster-based permutation tests of MEG\/EEG data do not establish significance of effect latency or location","volume":"56","author":"Sassenhagen","year":"2019","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"626","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2016.08.057","article-title":"Adaptive behaviour and feedback processing integrate experience and instruction in reinforcement learning","volume":"146","author":"Schiffer","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"772","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.08.011","article-title":"Selective impairment of prediction error signaling in human dorsolateral but not ventral striatum in Parkinson's disease patients: Evidence from a model-based fMRI study","volume":"49","author":"Schonberg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.31887\/DCNS.2016.18.1\/wschultz","article-title":"Dopamine reward prediction error coding","volume":"18","author":"Schultz","year":"2016","journal-title":"Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1593","DOI":"10.1126\/science.275.5306.1593","article-title":"A neural substrate of prediction and reward","volume":"275","author":"Schultz","year":"1997","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"78","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandc.2016.04.011","article-title":"Prior probabilities modulate cortical surprise responses: A study of event-related potentials","volume":"106","author":"Seer","year":"2016","journal-title":"Brain and Cognition"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"116857","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.116857","article-title":"Neurophysiological evidence for evaluative feedback processing depending on goal relevance","volume":"215","author":"Severo","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"161","DOI":"10.1037\/dec0000005","article-title":"Absolute performance of reinforcement-learning models for the Iowa Gambling Task","volume":"1","author":"Steingroever","year":"2014","journal-title":"Decision"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1004","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.03.025","article-title":"Bayesian model selection for group studies","volume":"46","author":"Stephan","year":"2009","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib82","volume-title":"Reinforcement learning: An introduction","author":"Sutton","year":"2018","edition":"2nd ed."},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(08)70174-6","article-title":"Timed action and object naming","volume":"41","author":"Szekely","year":"2005","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"21","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cell.2014.08.037","article-title":"Behavioral variability through stochastic choice and its gating by anterior cingulate cortex","volume":"159","author":"Tervo","year":"2014","journal-title":"Cell"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1020","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.12651","article-title":"Goal relevance influences performance monitoring at the level of the FRN and P3 components","volume":"53","author":"Walentowska","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"19048","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1117189108","article-title":"Modulation of the feedback-related negativity by instruction and experience","volume":"108","author":"Walsh","year":"2011","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A."},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1870","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2012.05.008","article-title":"Learning from experience: Event-related potential correlates of reward processing, neural adaptation, and behavioral choice","volume":"36","author":"Walsh","year":"2012","journal-title":"Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1004237","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1004237","article-title":"Is model fitting necessary for model-based fMRI?","volume":"11","author":"Wilson","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS Computational Biology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib89","volume-title":"Statistical principles in experimental design","author":"Winer","year":"1991","edition":"3rd ed."},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"364","DOI":"10.3758\/s13423-012-0324-9","article-title":"Heterogeneity of strategy use in the Iowa gambling task: A comparison of win\u2013stay\/lose\u2013shift and reinforcement learning models","volume":"20","author":"Worthy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Psychonomic Bulletin & Review"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jmp.2013.10.001","article-title":"A comparison model of reinforcement-learning and win\u2013stay\u2013lose\u2013shift decision-making processes: A tribute to W. K. Estes","volume":"59","author":"Worthy","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Mathematical Psychology"},{"key":"2022040819523499000_bib92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1070","DOI":"10.3758\/s13415-020-00820-6","article-title":"The influence of internal models on feedback-related brain activity","volume":"20","author":"Wurm","year":"2020","journal-title":"Cognitive, Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience"}],"container-title":["Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/jocn\/article-pdf\/34\/1\/34\/2007804\/jocn_a_01777.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/jocn\/article-pdf\/34\/1\/34\/2007804\/jocn_a_01777.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2022,4,8]],"date-time":"2022-04-08T19:52:50Z","timestamp":1649447570000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/jocn\/article\/34\/1\/34\/107381\/Task-Learnability-Modulates-Surprise-but-Not"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]},"references-count":92,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/jocn_a_01777","relation":{},"ISSN":["0898-929X","1530-8898"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0898-929X","type":"print"},{"value":"1530-8898","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2022,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2022,1,1]]}}}