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On a neural level, Hebbian learning suggests that this type of learning occurs through changes in synaptic plasticity when two neurons are simultaneously active, resulting in increased connectivity between them. Inspired by associative learning theories, we here investigated whether the mere co-activation of visual stimuli and stimulation of the primary motor cortex using TMS would result in stimulus\u2013response associations that can impact future behavior. During a learning phase, we repeatedly paired the presentation of a specific color (but not other colors) with a TMS pulse over the motor cortex. Next, participants performed a two-alternative forced-choice task where they had to categorize simple shapes and we studied whether the shapes' task-irrelevant color (and its potentially associated involuntary motor activity) affected the required motor response. Participants showed more errors on incongruent trials for stimuli that were previously paired with high intensity TMS pulses, but only when tested on the same day. Using a drift diffusion model for conflict tasks, we further demonstrate that this interference occurred early, and gradually increased as a function of associated TMS intensity. Taken together, our findings show that the human brain can learn stimulus\u2013response associations using externally induced motor cortex stimulation. Although we were inspired by the Hebbian learning literature, future studies should investigate whether Hebbian or other learning processes were also what brought about this effect.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_02100","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,1,2]],"date-time":"2024-01-02T16:52:05Z","timestamp":1704214325000},"page":"522-533","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Associative Visuomotor Learning Using Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation Induces Stimulus\u2013Response Interference"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"36","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4353-1701","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Leslie K.","family":"Held","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Emiel","family":"Cracco","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Lara","family":"Bardi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University, Belgium"},{"name":"Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, Bron, France"},{"name":"Universit\u00e9 Claude Bernard, Lyon 1, Villeurbanne, France"}]},{"given":"Maggie","family":"Kiraga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University, Belgium"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0008-5098-1616","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Elio","family":"Cristianelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University, Belgium"}]},{"given":"Marcel","family":"Brass","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University, Belgium"},{"name":"Humboldt Universit\u00e4t zu Berlin, Germany"}]},{"given":"Elger L.","family":"Abrahamse","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tilburg University, The Netherlands"},{"name":"Atl\u00e1ntico Medio University, Spain"}]},{"given":"Senne","family":"Braem","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Ghent University, Belgium"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024020716165340500_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tins.2004.12.003","article-title":"Memory retention\u2014The synaptic stability versus plasticity dilemma","volume":"28","author":"Abraham","year":"2005","journal-title":"Trends in Neurosciences"},{"key":"2024020716165340500_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2019.01.006","article-title":"Joint modeling of reaction times and choice improves parameter identifiability in reinforcement learning models","volume":"317","author":"Ballard","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience Methods"},{"key":"2024020716165340500_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev.neuro.24.1.139","article-title":"Synaptic modification by correlated activity: Hebb\u2019s postulate revisited","volume":"24","author":"Bi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Annual Review of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2024020716165340500_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"526","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.56.4.526","article-title":"Enhancing analogic reasoning with rTMS over the left prefrontal cortex","volume":"56","author":"Boroojerdi","year":"2001","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"2024020716165340500_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1038\/nrn1257","article-title":"The legacy of Donald O. 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