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Previous studies, however, have not directly explored the relationship between structural connectivity and effective functional connectivity of the brain during bilingual language control, and whether the two types of connectivity are associated with behavioral performance of language control. Using behavioral performance, functional, and diffusion imaging techniques, we found that: (1) during language control, the left dorsal lateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), left caudate nucleus (CN), inferior parietal lobe, precuneus, and dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC)\/pre-SMA were significantly activated. (2) In the language control model with left dlPFC, dACC\/pre-SMA, and left CN as ROIs (selected based on activation results and language control models from previous studies), stimuli first enter dACC\/pre-SMA and then to left CN. At the left CN, a bidirectional effective connectivity is formed with left dlPFC. (3) There is a nonlinear relationship between effective connectivity during language control and the structural connectivity of the second language learners' brains. Specifically, the fiber density between dACC\/pre-SMA and left dlPFC has a positive influence on the bidirectional effective connectivity between left dlPFC and left CN. Findings of the present study contribute evidence toward functional effective connectivity during bilingual language control; toward structural connectivity in the brains of second language learners; as well as toward nonlinear relationships between functional effective connectivity, structural connectivity, and behavioral performance in relation to bilingual language control.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_02128","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,2,15]],"date-time":"2024-02-15T12:48:32Z","timestamp":1708001312000},"page":"836-853","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":6,"title":["Bilingual Language Control in the Brain: Evidence from Structural and Effective Functional Brain Connectivity"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"36","author":[{"given":"Gongting","family":"Wang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"East China Normal University"},{"name":"Freie Universit\u00e4t Berlin"}]},{"given":"Lily","family":"Tao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"East China Normal University"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"905","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cortex.2012.08.018","article-title":"Language proficiency modulates the engagement of cognitive control areas in multilinguals","volume":"49","author":"Abutalebi","year":"2013","journal-title":"Cortex"},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"242","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneuroling.2006.10.003","article-title":"Bilingual language production: The neurocognition of language representation and control","volume":"20","author":"Abutalebi","year":"2007","journal-title":"Journal of Neurolinguistics"},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"689","DOI":"10.1017\/S1366728916000225","article-title":"Neuroimaging of language control in bilinguals: Neural adaptation and reserve","volume":"19","author":"Abutalebi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Bilingualism: Language and Cognition"},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2217","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2017.02217","article-title":"Uncovering the mechanisms responsible for why language learning may promote healthy cognitive aging","volume":"8","author":"Antoniou","year":"2017","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"275","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2018.02.041","article-title":"The impact of in-scanner head motion on structural connectivity derived from diffusion MRI","volume":"173","author":"Baum","year":"2018","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.10.020","article-title":"Behavioral correlates of changes in hippocampal gray matter structure during acquisition of foreign vocabulary","volume":"131","author":"Bellander","year":"2016","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1037\/bul0000099","article-title":"The bilingual adaptation: How minds accommodate experience","volume":"143","author":"Bialystok","year":"2017","journal-title":"Psychological Bulletin"},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.1177\/1529100610387084","article-title":"Bilingual minds","volume":"10","author":"Bialystok","year":"2009","journal-title":"Psychological Science in the The Public Interest"},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9708","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.1809779115","article-title":"Language switching decomposed through MEG and evidence from bimodal bilinguals","volume":"115","author":"Blanco-Elorrieta","year":"2018","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A."},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2367","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhv052","article-title":"Language control in bilinguals: Monitoring and response selection","volume":"26","author":"Branzi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"key":"2024041015085442100_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"437","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2015.09.073","article-title":"Bilingualism at the core of the brain. 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