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Apart from influencing late, decision-related, processing stages, frequency has also been shown to affect very early stages, and even the processing of nonwords. We developed a detailed account of the different frequency effects involved in LDs by (1) dividing LDs into processing stages using a combination of hidden semi-Markov models and multivariate pattern analysis applied to EEG data and (2) using generalized additive mixed models to investigate how the effect of continuous word and nonword frequency differs between these stages. We discovered six stages shared between word types, with the fifth stage consisting of two substages for pseudowords only. In the earliest stages, visual processing was completed faster for frequent words, but took longer for word-like nonwords. Later stages involved an orthographic familiarity assessment followed by an elaborate decision process, both affected differently by frequency. We therefore conclude that frequency indeed affects all processes involved in LDs and that the magnitude and direction of these effects differ both by process and word type.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_02214","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,11]],"date-time":"2024-07-11T19:04:08Z","timestamp":1720724648000},"page":"2227-2250","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":9,"title":["Word Type and Frequency Effects on Lexical Decisions Are Process-dependent and Start Early"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"36","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3165-2584","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Joshua","family":"Krause","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Groningen"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7445-5647","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jacolien","family":"van Rij","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Groningen"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4493-8223","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Jelmer P.","family":"Borst","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Groningen"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024090913402889700_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"481","DOI":"10.1037\/rev0000030","article-title":"The discovery of processing stages: Extension of Sternberg's method","volume":"123","author":"Anderson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"2024090913402889700_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"802","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.15.5.802","article-title":"Frequency and neighborhood effects on lexical access: Activation or search?","volume":"15","author":"Andrews","year":"1989","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"2024090913402889700_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"775","DOI":"10.1006\/jmla.1996.0040","article-title":"Lexical retrieval and selection processes: Effects of transposed-letter confusability","volume":"35","author":"Andrews","year":"1996","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"2024090913402889700_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1016\/j.bandl.2014.11.007","article-title":"Lexical and sublexical orthographic processing: An ERP study with skilled and dyslexic adult readers","volume":"141","author":"Ara\u00fajo","year":"2015","journal-title":"Brain and Language"},{"key":"2024090913402889700_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"290","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jml.2006.03.008","article-title":"Morphological influences on the recognition of monosyllabic monomorphemic words","volume":"55","author":"Baayen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Journal of Memory and Language"},{"key":"2024090913402889700_bib6","volume-title":"The CELEX lexical database","author":"Baayen","year":"1995"},{"key":"2024090913402889700_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1174","DOI":"10.1080\/02687038.2016.1147767","article-title":"Frequency in lexical processing","volume":"30","author":"Baayen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Aphasiology"},{"key":"2024090913402889700_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.1075\/ml.2.3.06baa","article-title":"Lexical dynamics for low-frequency complex words: A regression study across tasks and modalities","volume":"2","author":"Baayen","year":"2007","journal-title":"Mental Lexicon"},{"key":"2024090913402889700_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"340","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.10.3.340","article-title":"Are lexical decisions a good measure of lexical access? 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