{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,23]],"date-time":"2026-03-23T22:33:50Z","timestamp":1774305230071,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":37,"publisher":"MIT Press","issue":"11","funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["F32MH123002"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["F32MH123002"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 DC00920"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 DC00920"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000002","name":"National Institutes of Health","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01 MH129436"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01 MH129436"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000002","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["direct.mit.edu"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Our environment contains temporal information unfolding simultaneously at multiple timescales. How do we learn and represent these dynamic and overlapping information streams? We investigated these processes in a statistical learning paradigm with simultaneous short and long timescale contingencies. Human participants (n = 96) played a game where they learned to quickly click on a target image when it appeared in one of nine locations, in eight different contexts. Across contexts, we manipulated the order of target locations: at a short timescale, the order of pairs of sequential locations in which the target appeared; at a longer timescale, the set of locations that appeared in the first versus the second half of the game. Participants periodically predicted the upcoming target location, and later performed similarity judgments comparing the games based on their order properties. Participants showed context-dependent sensitivity to order information at both short and long timescales, with evidence of stronger learning for short timescales. We modeled the learning paradigm using a gated recurrent network trained to make immediate predictions, which demonstrated multilevel learning timecourses and patterns of sensitivity to the similarity structure of the games that mirrored human participants. The model grouped games with matching rule structure and dissociated games based on low-level order information more so than high-level order information. The work shows how humans and models can rapidly and concurrently acquire order information at different timescales.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/jocn_a_02232","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,8,6]],"date-time":"2024-08-06T12:41:49Z","timestamp":1722948109000},"page":"2343-2356","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Rapid Learning of Temporal Dependencies at Multiple Timescales"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"36","author":[{"given":"Cybelle M.","family":"Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pennsylvania"}]},{"given":"Sharon L.","family":"Thompson-Schill","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pennsylvania"}]},{"given":"Anna C.","family":"Schapiro","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Pennsylvania"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0130140","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0130140","article-title":"On pixel-wise explanations for non-linear classifier decisions by Layer-wise Relevance Propagation","volume":"10","author":"Bach","year":"2015","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"709","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2017.06.041","article-title":"Discovering event structure in continuous narrative perception and memory","volume":"95","author":"Baldassano","year":"2017","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"289","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x","article-title":"Controlling the false discovery rate: A practical and powerful approach to multiple testing","volume":"57","author":"Benjamini","year":"1995","journal-title":"Journal of the Royal Statistical Society: Series B (Methodological)"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1615","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2007.2056","article-title":"Multilevel structure in behaviour and in the brain: A model of Fuster's hierarchy","volume":"362","author":"Botvinick","year":"2007","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"395","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.111.2.395","article-title":"Doing without schema hierarchies: A recurrent connectionist approach to normal and impaired routine sequential action","volume":"111","author":"Botvinick","year":"2004","journal-title":"Psychological Review"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3265","DOI":"10.1093\/cercor\/bhac480","article-title":"Single voxel autocorrelation uncovers gradients of temporal dynamics in the hippocampus and entorhinal cortex during rest and navigation","volume":"33","author":"Bouffard","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cerebral Cortex"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2129","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2018.05.016","article-title":"Multiple scales of representation along the hippocampal anteroposterior axis in humans","volume":"28","author":"Brunec","year":"2018","journal-title":"Current Biology"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"675","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2020.02.013","article-title":"Constructing and forgetting temporal context in the human cerebral cortex","volume":"106","author":"Chien","year":"2020","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.1412.3555","article-title":"Empirical evaluation of gated recurrent neural networks on sequence modeling","author":"Chung","year":"2014","journal-title":"arXiv"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.120.3.235","article-title":"Learning the structure of event sequences","volume":"120","author":"Cleeremans","year":"1991","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: General"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1119","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.30.5.1119","article-title":"Distant melodies: Statistical learning of nonadjacent dependencies in tone sequences","volume":"30","author":"Creel","year":"2004","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"92","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2014.12.004","article-title":"How the hippocampus preserves order: The role of prediction and context","volume":"19","author":"Davachi","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"458","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.28.3.458","article-title":"Statistical learning of higher-order temporal structure from visual shape sequences","volume":"28","author":"Fiser","year":"2002","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"815","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2005.1622","article-title":"A theory of cortical responses","volume":"360","author":"Friston","year":"2005","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2267","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2010.10.038","article-title":"Neural prediction of higher-order auditory sequence statistics","volume":"54","author":"Furl","year":"2011","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib16","first-page":"249","article-title":"Understanding the difficulty of training deep feedforward neural networks","volume-title":"Proceedings of the Thirteenth International Conference on Artificial Intelligence and Statistics","author":"Glorot","year":"2010"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"431","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-9280.00476","article-title":"Variability and detection of invariant structure","volume":"13","author":"G\u00f3mez","year":"2002","journal-title":"Psychological Science"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2015.04.006","article-title":"Hierarchical process memory: Memory as an integral component of information processing","volume":"19","author":"Hasson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"18670","DOI":"10.1109\/ACCESS.2021.3051171","article-title":"Explaining CNN and RNN using selective layer-wise relevance propagation","volume":"9","author":"Jung","year":"2021","journal-title":"IEEE Access"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"12733","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-017-12876-5","article-title":"Process reveals structure: How a network is traversed mediates expectations about its architecture","volume":"7","author":"Karuza","year":"2017","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e1000209","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1000209","article-title":"A hierarchy of time-scales and the brain","volume":"4","author":"Kiebel","year":"2008","journal-title":"PLoS Computational Biology"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"613","DOI":"10.1002\/cphy.c170043","article-title":"Motor learning","volume":"9","author":"Krakauer","year":"2019","journal-title":"Comprehensive Physiology"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e64972","DOI":"10.7554\/eLife.64972","article-title":"Anticipation of temporally structured events in the brain","volume":"10","author":"Lee","year":"2021","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2906","DOI":"10.1523\/JNEUROSCI.3684-10.2011","article-title":"Topographic mapping of a hierarchy of temporal receptive windows using a narrated story","volume":"31","author":"Lerner","year":"2011","journal-title":"Journal of Neuroscience"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"523","DOI":"10.1037\/0278-7393.13.4.523","article-title":"Unconscious acquisition of complex procedural knowledge","volume":"13","author":"Lewicki","year":"1987","journal-title":"Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"31","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2010.00031","article-title":"On-line individual differences in statistical learning predict language processing","volume":"1","author":"Misyak","year":"2010","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.48550\/arXiv.2401.09491","article-title":"Memory, space, and planning: Multiscale predictive representations","author":"Momennejad","year":"2024","journal-title":"arXiv"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"127","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-0285(03)00128-2","article-title":"Learning at a distance I. Statistical learning of non-adjacent dependencies","volume":"48","author":"Newport","year":"2004","journal-title":"Cognitive Psychology"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20890","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.2003383117","article-title":"Hierarchical dynamics as a macroscopic organizing principle of the human brain","volume":"117","author":"Raut","year":"2020","journal-title":"Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S.A."},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1926","DOI":"10.1126\/science.274.5294.1926","article-title":"Statistical learning by 8-month-old infants","volume":"274","author":"Saffran","year":"1996","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"273","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327078IN0402_07","article-title":"From syllables to syntax: Multilevel statistical learning by 12-month-old infants","volume":"4","author":"Saffran","year":"2003","journal-title":"Infancy"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"229","DOI":"10.1007\/s00221-003-1548-8","article-title":"Chunking during human visuomotor sequence learning","volume":"152","author":"Sakai","year":"2003","journal-title":"Experimental Brain Research"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"486","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.3331","article-title":"Neural representations of events arise from temporal community structure","volume":"16","author":"Schapiro","year":"2013","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib200","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20160049","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2016.0049","article-title":"Complementary learning systems within the hippocampus: A neural network modelling approach to reconciling episodic memory with statistical learning","volume":"372","author":"Schapiro","year":"2017","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series B: Biological Sciences"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"235","DOI":"10.2478\/jaiscr-2019-0006","article-title":"Performance evaluation of deep neural networks applied to speech recognition: RNN, LSTM and GRU","volume":"9","author":"Shewalkar","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Artificial Intelligence and Soft Computing Research"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"106","DOI":"10.1111\/tops.12505","article-title":"Structuring memory through inference-based event segmentation","volume":"13","author":"Shin","year":"2021","journal-title":"Topics in Cognitive Science"},{"key":"2024101620193613200_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1101\/2023.07.24.550399","article-title":"The brain hierarchically represents the past and future during multistep anticipation","author":"Tarder-Stoll","year":"2023","journal-title":"bioRxiv"}],"container-title":["Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/jocn\/article-pdf\/36\/11\/2343\/2475580\/jocn_a_02232.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/jocn\/article-pdf\/36\/11\/2343\/2475580\/jocn_a_02232.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,16]],"date-time":"2024-10-16T16:19:52Z","timestamp":1729095592000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/jocn\/article\/36\/11\/2343\/123923\/Rapid-Learning-of-Temporal-Dependencies-at"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2024]]},"references-count":37,"journal-issue":{"issue":"11","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,11,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/jocn_a_02232","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.1101\/2024.01.15.575748","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["0898-929X","1530-8898"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0898-929X","type":"print"},{"value":"1530-8898","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2024]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2024]]}}}