{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,28]],"date-time":"2026-04-28T10:13:59Z","timestamp":1777371239393,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":68,"publisher":"MIT Press","content-domain":{"domain":["direct.mit.edu"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>Human interactions with human-like Computer-Generated Others (CGOs) have continued to become more prevalent in the rush to technologize societies. As such, the need for close analysis of mediative dynamics between humans and CGOs has become compelling. Relying on the theoretical framework of embodied enactive cognition, this paper will discuss designing human empathetic experiences of co-presence with CGOs. We propose a two-level idea of enactive simulation: the assumption of the first-order simulation (human simulating other) is built on the holistic assumption that humans understand others thanks to shared physical embodiment and enactive situatedness, while second-order simulation (designer simulating human simulating other) is the cognitive-affective means of the designer of human\u2013machine encounters to apply their own first-order experiences to simulate the simulation of the Experiencer. Our key assumption is that context is the defining component of co-presence, thereby allowing experimental situations of co-presence to be contextualized by means of mediated narratives. The case study experiment, Booth, designed to model affective-cognitive experiences of co-presence at encounters of human Experiencers with two artificial asylum seekers, allowed us to identify different factors of the dynamics influencing the experience of empathy and the ensuing decisions concerning asylum, in particular, the contextualizing narrative.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/pres_a_00378","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,4,20]],"date-time":"2023-04-20T15:18:09Z","timestamp":1682003889000},"page":"149-166","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Designing Enactive Co-Presence: Second-Order Simulation of Empathy for Artificial Humans in Narrative Contexts"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"30","author":[{"given":"Pia","family":"Tikka","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Enactive Virtuality Lab Baltic Film, Media and Arts School Tallinn University Tallinn, Estonia"}]},{"given":"Robert G.","family":"McNamara","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Enactive Virtuality Lab Baltic Film, Media and Arts School Tallinn University Tallinn, Estonia"}]},{"given":"Lynda Joy","family":"Gerry","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Auckland Bioengineering Institute University of Auckland Auckland, New Zealand"}]},{"given":"Ilkka","family":"Kosunen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"imec, Utrecht, The Netherlands"}]},{"given":"Mauri","family":"Kaipainen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Cognitive Science University of Helsinki Helsinki, Finland"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,12,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2023062317471651900_B1","first-page":"1","article-title":"The culture of disbelief: An ethnographic approach to understanding an under-theorised concept in the UK asylum system","volume":"102","author":"Anderson","year":"2014","journal-title":"Refugee Studies Centre"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9780511597985.011","article-title":"The relationship between SAM and ToMM: Two hypotheses","volume-title":"Theories of theories of mind","author":"Baron-Cohen","year":"1996"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B3","first-page":"54","article-title":"Social presence and interpersonal trust in avatar-based, collaborative net-communications","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 7th Annual International Workshop Presence","author":"Bente","year":"2004"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2018.00026","article-title":"Learning empathy through virtual reality: Multiple strategies for training empathy-related abilities using body ownership illusions in embodied virtual reality","volume":"5","author":"Bertrand","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI"},{"issue":"5","key":"2023062317471651900_B5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"456","DOI":"10.1162\/105474603322761270","article-title":"Toward a more robust theory and measure of social presence: Review and suggested criteria","volume":"12","author":"Biocca","year":"2003","journal-title":"Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062317471651900_B6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.9707\/2307-0919.1101","article-title":"Evolution and culture","volume":"9","author":"Chasiotis","year":"2011","journal-title":"Online Readings in Psychology and Culture"},{"issue":"3\u20134","key":"2023062317471651900_B7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"151","DOI":"10.1561\/1100000065","article-title":"The psychophysiology primer: A guide to methods and a broad review with a focus on human--computer interaction","volume":"9","author":"Cowley","year":"2016","journal-title":"Foundations and Trends in Human-Computer Interaction"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062317471651900_B8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"124","DOI":"10.1111\/ajpy.12012","article-title":"Tell me what I want to hear\u201d: Motivated recall and attributions in media regarding asylum seekers","volume":"65","author":"Croston","year":"2013","journal-title":"Australian Journal of Psychology"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.00468","article-title":"Anthropomorphism in human--robot co-evolution","volume":"9","author":"Damiano","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B10","first-page":"85","article-title":"A multidimensional approach to individual differences in empathy","volume":"10","author":"Davis","year":"1980","journal-title":"JSAS Catalog of Selected Documents in Psychology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062317471651900_B11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.44.1.113","article-title":"Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach","volume":"44","author":"Davis","year":"1983","journal-title":"Journal of Personality and Social Psychology"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2015.00576","article-title":"Is it the real deal? Perception of virtual characters versus humans: An affective cognitive neuroscience perspective","volume":"6","author":"de Borst","year":"2015","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"485","DOI":"10.1007\/s11097-007-9076-9","article-title":"Participatory sense-making: An enactive approach to social cognition","author":"De Jaegher","year":"2007"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/proceedings2022081085","article-title":"Conceptualizing and designing (co)augmented intelligence(s) enacting complex thinking: Morphological constraints, challenges and implications","volume-title":"Proceedings of The 2021 Summit of the International Society for the Study of Information","author":"de Melo","year":"2022"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"180","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.07.034","article-title":"Empathy, the umbrella term","volume":"129","author":"de Waal","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062317471651900_B16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11532","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-47888-w","article-title":"Heart Rate Variability reveals the fight between racially biased and politically correct behavior","volume":"9","author":"Di Palma","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"5","key":"2023062317471651900_B17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"294","DOI":"10.1089\/cyber.2020.0181","article-title":"Relationship development with humanoid social robots: Applying interpersonal theories to human--robot interaction","volume":"24","author":"Fox","year":"2021","journal-title":"Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking"},{"issue":"17","key":"2023062317471651900_B18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2005.08.041","article-title":"Theory of mind","volume":"15","author":"Frith","year":"2005","journal-title":"Current Biology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062317471651900_B19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1007\/s11097-005-4737-z","article-title":"Embodied simulation: From neurons to phenomenal experience","volume":"4","author":"Gallese","year":"2005","journal-title":"Phenomenology and the Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062317471651900_B20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104","DOI":"10.1162\/1054746053890242","article-title":"The responses of people to virtual humans in an immersive virtual environment","volume":"14","author":"Garau","year":"2005","journal-title":"Presence: Teleoperators and Virtual Environments"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B21","volume-title":"The presentation of self in everyday life","author":"Goffman","year":"1959"},{"issue":"5","key":"2023062317471651900_B22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"400","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2018.02.013","article-title":"Neurocognitive basis of racial ingroup bias in empathy","volume":"22","author":"Han","year":"2018","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"928","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2004.09.046","article-title":"Distinct neural substrates for the perception of real and virtual worlds","volume":"24","author":"Han","year":"2005","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062317471651900_B24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"300","DOI":"10.1016\/j.pec.2020.08.022","article-title":"Toward a consensus on the nature of empathy: A review of reviews","volume":"104","author":"H\u00e5kansson Eklund","year":"2021","journal-title":"Patient Education and Counseling"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fneur.2018.00491","article-title":"Cognitive and affective perspective-taking: Evidence for shared and dissociable anatomical substrates","volume":"9","author":"Healey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Neurology"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"253","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2020.00253","article-title":"Neural processing of narratives: From individual processing to viral propagation","volume":"14","author":"J\u00e4\u00e4skel\u00e4inen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"issue":"5","key":"2023062317471651900_B27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.20.5.911","article-title":"Development of story liking: Character identification, suspense, and outcome resolution","volume":"20","author":"Jose","year":"1984","journal-title":"Developmental Psychology"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"20210474","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.2021.0474","article-title":"Intertwining the social and the cognitive loops: Socially enactive cognition for human-compatible interactive systems","volume":"378","author":"Kahl","year":"2023","journal-title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological sciences"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"77","DOI":"10.4230\/OASIcs.CMN.2014.77","article-title":"Model of narrative nowness for neurocinematic experiments","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 5th Workshop on Computational Models of Narrative","author":"Kauttonen","year":"2014"},{"issue":"6156","key":"2023062317471651900_B30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1126\/science.1239918","article-title":"Reading literary fiction improves Theory of Mind","volume":"342","author":"Kidd","year":"2013","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15766\/mep_2374-8265.9596","article-title":"Critical synthesis package: Interpersonal Reactivity Index (IRI)","author":"Konrath","year":"2013","journal-title":"MedEdPORTAL"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"94","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2014.04.043","article-title":"It's only a computer: Virtual humans increase willingness to disclose","volume":"37","author":"Lucas","year":"2014","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"140","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chb.2019.01.011","article-title":"In the uncanny valley, transportation predicts narrative enjoyment more than empathy, but only for the tragic hero","volume":"94","author":"MacDorman","year":"2019","journal-title":"Computers in Human Behavior"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"361","DOI":"10.1007\/s11023-021-09558-7","article-title":"What does it mean to empathise with a robot?","volume":"31","author":"Malinowska","year":"2021","journal-title":"Minds and Machines"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsm011","article-title":"Detecting agency for the biological motion of veridical vs animated agents","volume":"2","author":"Mar","year":"2007","journal-title":"Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062317471651900_B36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"173","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-6924.2008.00073.x","article-title":"The function of fiction is the abstraction and simulation of social experience","volume":"3","author":"Mar","year":"2008","journal-title":"Perspectives on Psychological Science"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"feac067","DOI":"10.1093\/jrs\/feac067","article-title":"Well-founded fear of algorithms or algorithms of well-founded fear? Hybrid intelligence in automated asylum seeker interviews","author":"McNamara","year":"2023","journal-title":"Journal of Refugee Studies"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B38","volume-title":"Phenomenology of perception","author":"Merleau-Ponty","year":"1945\/1962"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062317471651900_B39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1109\/MRA.2012.2192811","article-title":"The uncanny valley [from the field]","volume":"19","author":"Mori","year":"2012","journal-title":"IEEE Robotics and Automation Magazine"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B40","first-page":"119","article-title":"The psychophysiological measurement of empathy","volume-title":"Psychology of empathy","author":"Neumann","year":"2011"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062317471651900_B41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"168","DOI":"10.1093\/geronb\/gbs055","article-title":"Empathic concern and perspective taking: Linear and quadratic effects of age across the adult life span","volume":"68","author":"O'Brien","year":"2013","journal-title":"The Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/frobt.2018.00114","article-title":"A systematic review of social presence: Definition, antecedents, and implications","volume":"5","author":"Oh","year":"2018","journal-title":"Frontiers in Robotics and AI"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062317471651900_B43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.1080\/12460125.2019.1646509","article-title":"Cognitive bias, decision styles, and risk attitudes in decision making and DSS","volume":"28","author":"Phillips-Wren","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Decision Systems"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.12688\/openreseurope.13193.2","article-title":"Presence, flow, and narrative absorption: an interdisciplinary theoretical exploration with a new spatiotemporal integrated model based on predictive processing","author":"Pianzola","year":"2021","journal-title":"Open Research Europe"},{"issue":"2","key":"2023062317471651900_B45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"89","DOI":"10.3167\/proj.2014.080206","article-title":"Forking cinematic paths to the self: Neurocinematically informed model of empathy in motion pictures","volume":"8","author":"Raz","year":"2014","journal-title":"Projections: The Journal for Movies and Mind"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062317471651900_B46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70","DOI":"10.1177\/1363461510362338","article-title":"Look me in the eye\u201d: Empathy and the transmission of trauma in the refugee determination process","volume":"47","author":"Rousseau","year":"2010","journal-title":"Transcultural Psychiatry"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1214","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neubiorev.2021.10.027","article-title":"Neural basis of in-group bias and prejudices: A systematic meta-analysis","volume":"131","author":"Saarinen","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-319-53133-5_2","article-title":"Toward an ontology of simulated social interaction: Varieties of the \u201cas-if\u201d for robots and humans","volume-title":"Sociality and normativity for robots: Philosophical inquiries into human-robot interactions","author":"Seibt","year":"2017"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062317471651900_B49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"617","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/awn279","article-title":"Two systems for empathy: A double dissociation between emotional and cognitive empathy in inferior frontal gyrus versus ventromedial prefrontal lesions","volume":"132","author":"Shamay-Tsoory","year":"2009","journal-title":"Brain: A Journal of Neurology"},{"issue":"9","key":"2023062317471651900_B50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0257557","article-title":"Empathy and its associations with age and sociodemographic characteristics in a large UK population sample","author":"Sommerlad","year":"2021","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B51","first-page":"7","article-title":"The social identity theory of intergroup behavior","volume-title":"The psychology of intergroup relations","author":"Tajfel","year":"1986"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B52","first-page":"1","article-title":"Empathy and consciousness","volume":"8","author":"Thompson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Journal of Consciousness Studies"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/S1364-6613(00)01750-2","article-title":"Radical embodiment: Neural dynamics and consciousness","volume":"5","author":"Thompson","year":"2001","journal-title":"Trends in Cognitive Sciences"},{"issue":"1","key":"2023062317471651900_B54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"47","DOI":"10.3167\/proj.2022.160104","article-title":"Enactive authorship: Second-order simulation of the viewer experience\u2014A neurocinematic approach","volume":"16","author":"Tikka","year":"2022","journal-title":"Projections: The Journal for Movies & Mind"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B55","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"314","DOI":"10.2307\/j.ctvhktjh6.19","article-title":"Intersubjectivity, idiosyncrasy, and narrative deixis: A neurocinematic approach","volume-title":"Narrative complexity cognition, embodiment, evolution","author":"Tikka","year":"2019"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"794","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00794","article-title":"From naturalistic neuroscience to modeling radical embodiment with narrative enactive systems","volume":"8","author":"Tikka","year":"2014","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2012.00298","article-title":"Enactive cinema paves way for understanding complex real-time social interaction in neuroimaging experiments","volume":"6","author":"Tikka","year":"2012","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B58","volume-title":"Enactive cinema. Simulatorium Eisensteinense","author":"Tikka","year":"2008"},{"issue":"4","key":"2023062317471651900_B59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"205","DOI":"10.1080\/14626260601074078","article-title":"Narrative logic of enactive cinema: Obsession","volume":"17","author":"Tikka","year":"2006","journal-title":"Digital Creativity"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B60","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1163\/9789401203081_011","article-title":"Cinema as externalization of consciousness","volume-title":"Screen consciousness: Mind, cinema and world","author":"Tikka","year":"2006"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B61","first-page":"103","article-title":"Dynamic emotion ecology in cinema","volume-title":"Integrated media machine","author":"Tikka","year":"2005"},{"issue":"3","key":"2023062317471651900_B62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1177\/0735275112457914","article-title":"Theory construction in qualitative research: From grounded theory to abductive analysis","volume":"30","author":"Timmermans","year":"2012","journal-title":"Sociological Theory"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B63","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/6730.001.0001","volume-title":"Embodied mind: Cognitive science and human experience","author":"Varela","year":"1991"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"48","DOI":"10.1016\/j.copsyc.2018.05.003","article-title":"The neuroscience of intergroup emotion","volume":"24","author":"Vollberg","year":"2018","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Psychology"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2020.01086","article-title":"Investigation on the rationality of the extant ways of scoring the Interpersonal Reactivity Index based on confirmatory factor analysis","volume":"11","author":"Wang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Frontiers in Psychology"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"365","DOI":"10.1007\/s11245-017-9484-6","article-title":"Introduction: The varieties of enactivism","volume":"36","author":"Ward","year":"2017","journal-title":"Topoi"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B67","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.7551\/mitpress\/6541.001.0001","volume-title":"Subjectivity and selfhood: Investigating the first-person perspective","author":"Zahavi","year":"2005"},{"key":"2023062317471651900_B68","article-title":"Empathy: Affect from bearing witness to the emotions of others","volume-title":"Responding to the screen: Representation and reaction processes","author":"Zillmann","year":"1991"}],"container-title":["PRESENCE: Virtual and Augmented Reality"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/pvar\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1162\/pres_a_00378\/2138681\/pres_a_00378.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/pvar\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1162\/pres_a_00378\/2138681\/pres_a_00378.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2023,6,23]],"date-time":"2023-06-23T17:50:34Z","timestamp":1687542634000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/pvar\/article\/doi\/10.1162\/pres_a_00378\/115694\/Designing-Enactive-Co-Presence-Second-Order"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021]]},"references-count":68,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/pres_a_00378","relation":{},"ISSN":["1531-3263"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1531-3263","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2021]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2021]]}}}