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However, physiological noise correction has not received corresponding attention in rt-fMRI NF and most attempts have mainly focused on offline data correction. Given the relatively rare use of physiological denoising methods in rt-fMRI NF and little knowledge about how these methods relate to reported outcomes, in this paper we review recent practices in physiology correction, and conduct a meta-analysis to summarize how reported outcomes vary across different correction approaches. A total of 227 studies were included. We found that physiology correction methods are still not very common offline (29.1%) and online (31.3%) and that even basic physiology recordings are still quite rarely reported in rt-fMRI studies (18.1%). This suggests that the implementation of physiological noise correction and use of concurrently recorded physiological signals is still in early stages. When summarizing reported outcomes of real-time target signal regulation, we found that studies employing online physiological correction did not systematically report smaller meta-analytic effect sizes than studies without such correction. Among correction methods, \u2018imaging signal-based\u2019 approaches were being the most commonly applied online. From a combined empirical and theoretical perspective, we recommend the use of online physiology corrections in rt-fMRI NF studies.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/imag.a.1215","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,31]],"date-time":"2026-03-31T19:42:52Z","timestamp":1774986172000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":1,"title":["Physiological artefact control in real-time fMRI neurofeedback \u2013 A systematic review and meta-analysis"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-9616-5373","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jingying","family":"Zhang","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychology, Central Institute of Mental Health, University of Heidelberg\/Medical Faculty Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Partner Site Mannheim-Heidelberg-Ulm, Berlin, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Franziska","family":"Weiss","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychology, Central Institute of Mental Health, University of Heidelberg\/Medical Faculty Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Kirsch","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychology, Central Institute of Mental Health, University of Heidelberg\/Medical Faculty Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Partner Site Mannheim-Heidelberg-Ulm, Berlin, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg\/Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Martin Fungisai","family":"Gerchen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Clinical Psychology, Central Institute of Mental Health, University of Heidelberg\/Medical Faculty Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany"},{"name":"German Center for Mental Health (DZPG), Partner Site Mannheim-Heidelberg-Ulm, Berlin, Germany"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Heidelberg, Heidelberg, Germany"},{"name":"Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience Heidelberg\/Mannheim, Mannheim, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,13]]},"reference":[{"issue":"1","key":"2026041315553597400_IMAG.a.1215-b1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"90","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.04.042","article-title":"A component based noise correction method (CompCor) for BOLD and perfusion based fMRI","volume":"37","author":"Behzadi","year":"2007","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041315553597400_IMAG.a.1215-b2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1536","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2006.02.048","article-title":"Separating respiratory-variation-related fluctuations from neuronal-activity-related fluctuations in fMRI","volume":"31","author":"Birn","year":"2006","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026041315553597400_IMAG.a.1215-b3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"644","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2007.11.059","article-title":"The respiration response function: The temporal dynamics of fMRI signal fluctuations related to changes in respiration","volume":"40","author":"Birn","year":"2008","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026041315553597400_IMAG.a.1215-b4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5","DOI":"10.1002\/jrsm.1230","article-title":"Basics of meta-analysis: I2 is not an absolute measure of heterogeneity","volume":"8","author":"Borenstein","year":"2017","journal-title":"Research Synthesis Methods"},{"key":"2026041315553597400_IMAG.a.1215-b5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"81","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2016.12.001","article-title":"Monitoring cardiac and respiratory physiology during FMRI","volume":"154","author":"Bulte","year":"2017","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026041315553597400_IMAG.a.1215-b6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1448","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.05.012","article-title":"Effects of model-based physiological noise correction on default mode network anti-correlations and correlations","volume":"47","author":"Chang","year":"2009","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026041315553597400_IMAG.a.1215-b7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cohen, J.\n           (2013). 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