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We investigated how evidence-based learning strategies and individual performance relate to the neurocognitive dynamics of vocabulary learning. Eighty-three adults proficient in German or French learned 48 Finnish (L2) nouns over 14 days using a mobile app that systematically varied retrieval practice, corrective feedback, multisensory learning, and distributed learning. Before and after training, EEG was recorded during a translation recognition task designed to elicit the N400, an index of semantic integration. Vocabulary accuracy increased from 0.41% pre-learning to 75.5% post-learning (dz = 3.96), and the N400 incongruity effect increased significantly, F(1, 75) = 99.52, p &amp;lt; .001, \u03b7\u00b2g = .32, reflecting successful integration of new L2 words into the mental lexicon. High performers showed larger N400 responses, consistent with more differentiated semantic processing. In addition, performance group differences emerged in event-related potential (ERP) template-map preponderance (i.e., the proportion of epoch time points assigned to a given template map), indicating differences in processing dynamics and network configurations. Despite systematic manipulation of learning strategies, no single approach yielded consistent behavioral or neural advantages, suggesting that overall exposure and cumulative practice, rather than any specific strategy, may have been primary contributors to the observed learning gains. ERP template-map analyses further revealed that learning not only increased neural responses but also shifted map preponderance within the N400 window as a function of Session and Congruency, indicating a qualitative reorganization of semantic processing. These findings suggest that vocabulary learning success is more closely related to the degree of semantic integration than to any single instructional strategy.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/imag.a.1379","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,9]],"date-time":"2026-09-09T20:02:01Z","timestamp":1788984121000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Brain network differences in second language learning depend on individual competencies"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-5888-916X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicole H.","family":"Skieresz","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, UniDistance Suisse, Brig, Switzerland"},{"name":"The LINE (Laboratory for Integrative Neurosciences), Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland"},{"name":"The Sense Innovation and Research Center, Lausanne, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5796-2209","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Sandy C.","family":"Marca","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, UniDistance Suisse, Brig, Switzerland"},{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7821-117X","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Micah M.","family":"Murray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The LINE (Laboratory for Integrative Neurosciences), Radiology Department, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland"},{"name":"The Sense Innovation and Research Center, Lausanne, Switzerland"},{"name":"Department of Hearing and Speech Sciences, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, TN, United States"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3969-9782","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Thomas P.","family":"Reber","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, UniDistance Suisse, Brig, Switzerland"},{"name":"Department of Epileptology, University of Bonn Medical Center, Bonn, Germany"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8874-8341","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Nicolas","family":"Rothen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Psychology, UniDistance Suisse, Brig, Switzerland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,30]]},"reference":[{"issue":"4","key":"2026093015555091100_IMAG.a.1379-b1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1080\/23273798.2024.2310549","article-title":"Tracking the acquisition and retention of novel word representations: An ERP study","volume":"39","author":"Armstrong","year":"2024","journal-title":"Language, Cognition and Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026093015555091100_IMAG.a.1379-b2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"16575","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-41791-1","article-title":"The effect of unisensory and multisensory information on lexical decision and free recall in young and older adults","volume":"13","author":"Atkin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026093015555091100_IMAG.a.1379-b3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"35","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1467-9922.2007.00398.x","article-title":"Effects of opportunities for word retrieval during second language vocabulary learning","volume":"57","author":"Barcroft","year":"2007","journal-title":"Language Learning"},{"issue":"8","key":"2026093015555091100_IMAG.a.1379-b4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1750","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2024.02.029","article-title":"Neural evidence for referential understanding of object words in dogs","volume":"34","author":"Boros","year":"2024","journal-title":"Current Biology"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026093015555091100_IMAG.a.1379-b5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01199778","article-title":"Mapping event-related brain potential microstates to sentence endings","volume":"8","author":"Brandeis","year":"1995","journal-title":"Brain Topography"},{"key":"2026093015555091100_IMAG.a.1379-b6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"82","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.03.029","article-title":"Capturing the spatiotemporal dynamics of self-generated, task-initiated thoughts with EEG and fMRI","volume":"194","author":"Br\u00e9chet","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026093015555091100_IMAG.a.1379-b7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brunet, D., Murray, M. 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