{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T20:54:09Z","timestamp":1790888049690,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"MIT Press","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1789084800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":253,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["direct.mit.edu"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>Tremendous maturation in brain structure and function, underlying very rapid cognitive development, occurs in the early years of life, yet it has been difficult to obtain reliable measures of brain function over this period. A major challenge has been the difficulty of acquiring reliable neuroimaging data from awake young children, who often struggle to tolerate conventional imaging environments or remain still during scanning. Existing approaches each involves important compromises between spatial and temporal resolution, movement tolerance and practicality for use in early childhood. Optically pumped magnetometers (OPMs), a recent advance in magnetoencephalography (MEG) technology, are expanding the developmental neuroimaging toolkit. By enabling adaptable, wearable, and movement-tolerant MEG systems, OPMs retain the excellent spatial and temporal resolution of conventional cryogenic MEG technology while improving suitability for infants, toddlers, and young children. In this commentary, we briefly review the current functional neuroimaging toolkit used across development and discuss how OPMs are transforming the study of the developing brain. We highlight recent applications of OPMs to study early life, their potential for investigating brain\u2013behaviour relationships and social interaction, and their promise for improving inclusion of clinical populations traditionally underrepresented in neuroimaging research. We also outline remaining technical and methodological challenges that should be addressed as the field continues to grow.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/imag.a.1387","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,11]],"date-time":"2026-09-11T20:01:51Z","timestamp":1789156911000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Expanding the toolkit: OPMs for studying the developing brain"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"4","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3534-9750","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Margot J.","family":"Taylor","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Diagnostic & Interventional Radiology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada"},{"name":"Program in Neurosciences & Mental Health, Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Medical Imaging, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada"},{"name":"Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5641-0947","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Natalie","family":"Rhodes","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Diagnostic & Interventional Radiology, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada"},{"name":"Program in Neurosciences & Mental Health, Research Institute, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1190310","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1190310","article-title":"An integrated full-head OPM-MEG system based on 128 zero-field sensors","volume":"17","author":"Alem","year":"2023","journal-title":"Frontiers in Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.infbeh.2019.101389","article-title":"A decade of infant neuroimaging research: What have we learned and where are we going?","volume":"58","author":"Azhari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Infant Behavior & Development"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"327","DOI":"10.1038\/nn.4504","article-title":"Magnetoencephalography for brain electrophysiology and imaging","volume":"20","author":"Baillet","year":"2017","journal-title":"Nature Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1548260","DOI":"10.3389\/fmedt.2025.1548260","article-title":"A fully integrated whole-head helium OPM MEG: A performance assessment compared to cryogenic MEG","volume":"7","author":"Bonnet","year":"2025","journal-title":"Frontiers in Medical Technology"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b4","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"657","DOI":"10.1038\/nature26147","article-title":"Moving magnetoencephalography towards real-world applications with a wearable system","volume":"555","author":"Boto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"404","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2017.01.034","article-title":"A new generation of magnetoencephalography: Room temperature measurements using optically-pumped magnetometers","volume":"149","author":"Boto","year":"2017","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116099","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.116099","article-title":"Wearable neuroimaging: Combining and contrasting magnetoencephalography and electroencephalography","volume":"201","author":"Boto","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b7","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"119027","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2022.119027","article-title":"Triaxial detection of the neuromagnetic field using optically-pumped magnetometry: feasibility and application in children","volume":"252","author":"Boto","year":"2022","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"117","DOI":"10.1097\/WCO.0000000000000182","article-title":"Autism spectrum disorder in infancy: developmental considerations in treatment targets","volume":"28","author":"Brian","year":"2015","journal-title":"Current Opinion in Neurology"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b9","first-page":"43","article-title":"The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) study: Imaging acquisition across 21 sites","volume":"32","author":"Casey","year":"2018","journal-title":"Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, The Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Consortium: Rationale, Aims, and Assessment Strategy"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"917851","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2022.917851","article-title":"Maturational trajectory of fusiform gyrus neural activity when viewing faces: From 4 months to 4 years old","volume":"16","author":"Chen","year":"2022","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3609","DOI":"10.1002\/hbm.25871","article-title":"Infant brain imaging using magnetoencephalography: Challenges, solutions, and best practices","volume":"43","author":"Clarke","year":"2022","journal-title":"Human Brain Mapping"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b13","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1162\/imag_a_00489","article-title":"Pushing the boundaries of MEG based on optically pumped magnetometers towards early human life","volume":"3","author":"Corvilain","year":"2025","journal-title":"Imaging Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e70262","DOI":"10.1111\/psyp.70262","article-title":"Revolutionizing pediatric neurophysiology with magnetoencephalography","volume":"63","author":"Edgar","year":"2026","journal-title":"Psychophysiology"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"429","DOI":"10.1148\/radiol.212453","article-title":"On-scalp optically pumped magnetometers versus cryogenic magnetoencephalography for diagnostic evaluation of epilepsy in school-aged children","volume":"304","author":"Feys","year":"2022","journal-title":"Radiology"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinph.2023.08.010","article-title":"On-scalp magnetoencephalography for the diagnostic evaluation of epilepsy during infancy","volume":"155","author":"Feys","year":"2023","journal-title":"Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b17","first-page":"13623613231159153","article-title":"The earlier the better: An RCT of treatment timing effects for toddlers on the autism spectrum","volume":"27","author":"Guthrie","year":"2023","journal-title":"Autism"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138010","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neulet.2024.138010","article-title":"The effect of different visual feedback interfaces of music training games on speech rehabilitation in hearing-impaired children: An fNIRS study","volume":"843","author":"Hao","year":"2024","journal-title":"Neuroscience Letters"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101060","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2022.101060","article-title":"A survey of protocols from 54 infant and toddler neuroimaging research labs","volume":"54","author":"Hendrix","year":"2022","journal-title":"Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"359","DOI":"10.1080\/15248372.2015.1135801","article-title":"Pupillometry in infancy research","volume":"17","author":"Hepach","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Cognition and Development"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b21","first-page":"1","article-title":"A tool for functional brain imaging with lifespan compliance","volume":"10","author":"Hill","year":"2019","journal-title":"Nature Communications"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b22","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"116995","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2020.116995","article-title":"Multi-channel whole-head OPM-MEG: Helmet design and a comparison with a conventional system","volume":"219","author":"Hill","year":"2020","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00118","article-title":"Hyperscanning MEG for understanding mother\u2013child cerebral interactions","volume":"8","author":"Hirata","year":"2014","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5454","DOI":"10.3390\/s23125454","article-title":"Naturalistic hyperscanning with wearable magnetoencephalography","volume":"23","author":"Holmes","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sensors"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b25","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-50697-w","article-title":"Balanced, bi-planar magnetic field and field gradient coils for field compensation in wearable magnetoencephalography","volume":"9","author":"Holmes","year":"2019","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1105","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2009.03.027","article-title":"Task complexity relates to activation of cortical motor areas during uni- and bimanual performance: a functional NIRS study","volume":"46","author":"Holper","year":"2009","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"153","DOI":"10.1016\/bs.pbr.2016.03.004","article-title":"Hemodynamic signals in fNIRS","volume":"225","author":"Hoshi","year":"2016","journal-title":"Progress in Brain Research"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1186\/s11689-020-09350-1","article-title":"MEG-PLAN: A clinical and technical protocol for obtaining magnetoencephalography data in minimally verbal or nonverbal children who have autism spectrum disorder","volume":"13","author":"Kuschner","year":"2021","journal-title":"Journal of Neurodevelopmental Disorders"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1086208","DOI":"10.3389\/fnins.2023.1086208","article-title":"Demographic reporting and phenotypic exclusion in fNIRS","volume":"17","author":"Kwasa","year":"2023","journal-title":"Frontiers in Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b30","volume-title":"Mullen scales of early learning","author":"Mullen","year":"1995"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"138","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2013.00138","article-title":"High-frequency brain activity and muscle artifacts in MEG\/EEG: A review and recommendations","volume":"7","author":"Muthukumaraswamy","year":"2013","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"094301","DOI":"10.1063\/1.4962020","article-title":"BabyMEG: A whole-head pediatric magnetoencephalography system for human brain development research","volume":"87","author":"Okada","year":"2016","journal-title":"Review of Scientific Instruments"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1162\/imag_a_00495","article-title":"Combining video telemetry and wearable MEG for naturalistic imaging","volume":"3","author":"O\u2019Neill","year":"2025","journal-title":"Imaging Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b34","first-page":"89","article-title":"Fully integrated standalone zero field optically pumped magnetometer for biomagnetism","volume-title":"Presented at the Steep Dispersion Engineering and Opto-Atomic Precision Metrology XI","author":"Osborne","year":"2018"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101501","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2024.101501","article-title":"The maturation of infant and toddler visual cortex neural activity and associations with fine motor performance","volume":"71","author":"Otten","year":"2025","journal-title":"Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1111\/nyas.14890","article-title":"A 90-channel triaxial magnetoencephalography system using optically pumped magnetometers","volume":"1517","author":"Rea","year":"2022","journal-title":"Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1162\/imag_a_00527","article-title":"Measuring the neurodevelopmental trajectory of excitatory-inhibitory balance via visual gamma oscillations","volume":"3","author":"Rhodes","year":"2025","journal-title":"Imaging Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b38","article-title":"Tracking the neurodevelopmental trajectory of beta band oscillations with optically pumped magnetometer-based magnetoencephalography","volume":"13","author":"Rier","year":"2024","journal-title":"eLife"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"408","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.06.010","article-title":"Towards OPM-MEG in a virtual reality environment","volume":"199","author":"Roberts","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"99","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2014.00099","article-title":"Artemis 123: Development of a whole-head infant and young child MEG system","volume":"8","author":"Roberts","year":"2014","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"nsaf076","DOI":"10.1093\/scan\/nsaf076","article-title":"Mapping neural signatures of face processing in young children: An OPM-MEG study","volume":"20","author":"Safar","year":"2025","journal-title":"Social Cognitive and Affective Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b42","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6513","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-024-56878-6","article-title":"Using optically pumped magnetometers to replicate task-related responses in next generation magnetoencephalography","volume":"14","author":"Safar","year":"2024","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"419","DOI":"10.3389\/fnhum.2017.00419","article-title":"Functional magnetic resonance imaging and functional near-infrared spectroscopy: insights from combined recording studies","volume":"11","author":"Scarapicchia","year":"2017","journal-title":"Frontiers in Human Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1162\/imag_a_00179","article-title":"Simultaneous whole-head electrophysiological recordings using EEG and OPM-MEG","volume":"2","author":"Seedat","year":"2024","journal-title":"Imaging Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"118604","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2021.118604","article-title":"Using OPMs to measure neural activity in standing, mobile participants","volume":"244","author":"Seymour","year":"2021","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"4160","DOI":"10.3390\/s25134160","article-title":"Using wearable MEG to study the neural control of human stepping","volume":"25","author":"Spedden","year":"2025","journal-title":"Sensors (Basel)"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"5177","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-022-08689-w","article-title":"Cortical activation during cooperative joint actions and competition in children with and without an autism spectrum condition (ASC): An fNIRS study","volume":"12","author":"Su","year":"2022","journal-title":"Scientific Reports"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b48","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"6","DOI":"10.1038\/s41539-025-00388-1","article-title":"Neural mechanisms underpinning the association between visual arts education and creativity","volume":"11","author":"Teng","year":"2025","journal-title":"npj Science of Learning"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b49","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"598","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2019.05.063","article-title":"Optically pumped magnetometers: From quantum origins to multi-channel magnetoencephalography","volume":"199","author":"Tierney","year":"2019","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b50","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"101433","DOI":"10.1016\/j.dcn.2024.101433","article-title":"The development of aperiodic and periodic resting-state power between early childhood and adulthood: New insights from optically pumped magnetometers","volume":"69","author":"Vandewouw","year":"2024","journal-title":"Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience"},{"key":"2026100115555903100_IMAG.a.1387-b51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"211104","DOI":"10.1063\/1.2392722","article-title":"Magnetoencephalography with an atomic magnetometer","volume":"89","author":"Xia","year":"2006","journal-title":"Applied Physics Letters"}],"container-title":["Imaging Neuroscience"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/imag\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1162\/IMAG.a.1387\/2627384\/imag.a.1387.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/imag\/article-pdf\/doi\/10.1162\/IMAG.a.1387\/2627384\/imag.a.1387.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,1]],"date-time":"2026-10-01T19:56:09Z","timestamp":1790884569000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/imag\/article\/doi\/10.1162\/IMAG.a.1387\/138954\/Expanding-the-toolkit-OPMs-for-studying-the"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"references-count":51,"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/imag.a.1387","relation":{},"ISSN":["2837-6056"],"issn-type":[{"value":"2837-6056","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026]]},"article-number":"IMAG.a.1387"}}