{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,3]],"date-time":"2026-10-03T04:17:06Z","timestamp":1791001026627,"version":"4.1.0"},"reference-count":73,"publisher":"MIT Press","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,28]],"date-time":"2025-01-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1738022400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":27,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100003246","name":"Dutch Research Council","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["016.Vici.185.050"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["016.Vici.185.050"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100003246","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["direct.mit.edu"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n               <jats:p>The contrast sensitivity function (CSF) characterizes visual function, and is widely used in research on visual perception and ophthalmological disorders. The CSF describes the lowest contrast level that participants can perceive as a function of spatial frequency. Here, we present a new method to estimate the neural equivalent of the CSF that describes how a population of neurons responds to contrast as a function of spatial frequency. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) at 7 Tesla, we measured neural responses while participants viewed gratings that varied systematically in contrast and spatial frequency. We modeled the neural CSF (nCSF) using an asymmetric parabolic function, and we modeled the transition from no response to full response using a contrast response function (CRF). We estimated the nCSF parameters for every cortical location by minimizing the residual variance between the model predictions and the fMRI data. We validated the method using simulations and parameter recovery. We show that our nCSF model explains a significant amount of the variance in the fMRI time series. Moreover, the properties of the nCSF vary according to known systematic differences across the visual cortex. Specifically, the peak spatial frequency that a cortical location responds to decreases with eccentricity and across the visual hierarchy. This new method will provide valuable insights into the properties of the visual cortex and how they are altered in both healthy and clinical conditions.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/imag_a_00469","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,1,28]],"date-time":"2025-01-28T20:00:50Z","timestamp":1738094450000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":10,"title":["Modeling neural contrast sensitivity functions in human visual\n                    cortex"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"3","author":[{"given":"Carlien","family":"Roelofzen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinoza Centre for Neuroimaging, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Computational Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marcus","family":"Daghlian","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinoza Centre for Neuroimaging, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Computational Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Laboratory for Experimental Ophthalmology, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jelle A.","family":"van Dijk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinoza Centre for Neuroimaging, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Computational Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maartje C.","family":"de Jong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinoza Centre for Neuroimaging, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Computational Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Experimental and Applied Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Serge O.","family":"Dumoulin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Spinoza Centre for Neuroimaging, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Computational Cognitive Neuroscience and Neuroimaging, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Experimental and Applied Psychology, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands"},{"name":"Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,18]]},"reference":[{"issue":"2","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"773","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.00291.2019","article-title":"Population spatial frequency tuning in\n                        human early visual cortex","volume":"123","author":"Aghajari","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of\n                        Neurophysiology"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"217","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1982.48.1.217","article-title":"Striate cortex of monkey and cat: Contrast response\n                        function","volume":"48","author":"Albrecht","year":"1982","journal-title":"Journal of 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(CSF) during childhood: Analysis of previous findings and new psychophysical\n                        data","volume":"20","author":"Dekker","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Vision"},{"issue":"3","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b19","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"576","DOI":"10.1016\/S1053-8119(02)00058-7","article-title":"Automatic volumetric segmentation of human visual retinotopic\n                        cortex","volume":"18","author":"Dumoulin","year":"2003","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b20","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"357","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-vision-091517-033948","article-title":"How visual cortical organization is\n                        altered by ophthalmologic and neurologic disorders","volume":"4","author":"Dumoulin","year":"2018","journal-title":"Annual Review of Vision 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fMRI","volume":"9","author":"Glover","year":"1999","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b25","article-title":"NeuroCSF: An fMRI method to measure contrast sensitivity\n                        function in human visual cortex","author":"Goulet","year":"2024","journal-title":"bioRxiv"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1167\/14.1.17","article-title":"Measurement of population receptive\n                        fields in human early visual cortex using back-projection\n                        tomography","volume":"14","author":"Greene","year":"2014","journal-title":"Journal of Vision"},{"key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"424","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2012.10.020","article-title":"Frequency specific spatial interactions in human\n                        electrocorticography: V1 alpha oscillations reflect surround\n         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function","volume":"16","author":"Hess","year":"1977","journal-title":"Investigative Ophthalmology &\n                        Visual Science"},{"issue":"9","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b81","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"18","DOI":"10.1167\/jov.20.9.18","article-title":"Stimulus-dependent contrast sensitivity\n                        asymmetries around the visual field","volume":"20","author":"Himmelberg","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of\n                        Vision"},{"key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3309","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-022-31041-9","article-title":"Linking individual differences in human\n                        primary visual cortex to contrast sensitivity around the visual\n                        field","volume":"13","author":"Himmelberg","year":"2022","journal-title":"Nature 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                    spatial vision: A contrast sensitivity and external noise\n                        study","volume":"47","author":"Huang","year":"2007","journal-title":"Vision Research"},{"issue":"S157","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"58","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-3768.1983.tb03932.x","article-title":"Contrast sensitivity in visually\n                        impaired children","volume":"61","author":"Hyv\u00e4rinen","year":"1983","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmologica"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"71","DOI":"10.1097\/IJG.0000000000001379","article-title":"Contrast sensitivity and glaucoma","volume":"29","author":"Ichhpujani","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Glaucoma"},{"issue":"6","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"11","DOI":"10.1167\/jov.20.6.11","article-title":"Differential impact of exogenous 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response","volume":"244","author":"Kupers","year":"2021","journal-title":"Neuroimage"},{"key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b43","first-page":"490","article-title":"Sur la mesure de l\u2019acuit\u00e9\n                        visuelle au moyen de franges d\u2019interf\u00e9rence","volume":"200","author":"Le Grand","year":"1935","journal-title":"Comptes Rendus de l'Acad\u00e9mie des Sciences Paris"},{"key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"144","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuroimage.2013.05.026","article-title":"A new method for estimating population receptive field\n                        topography in visual cortex","volume":"81","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"NeuroImage"},{"issue":"6","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b45","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e1007924","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pcbi.1007924","article-title":"A validation framework for neuroimaging software: The case of\n                        population receptive fields","volume":"16","author":"Lerma-Usabiaga","year":"2020","journal-title":"PLoS Computational\n                        Biology"},{"issue":"3","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b46","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"17","DOI":"10.1167\/10.3.17","article-title":"Bayesian adaptive estimation of the contrast sensitivity\n                        function: The quick CSF method","volume":"10","author":"Lesmes","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of\n                        Vision"},{"issue":"6","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b47","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2517","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1994.71.6.2517","article-title":"Receptive fields and functional architecture of macaque\n                        V2","volume":"71","author":"Levitt","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of 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                contrast sensitivity and modulation transfer function","volume":"89","author":"Michael","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmologica"},{"key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.22599\/bioj.79","article-title":"The importance of contrast sensitivity\n                        testing in children","volume":"11","author":"Milling","year":"2014","journal-title":"British and Irish Orthoptic\n                        Journal"},{"issue":"1","key":"2025021812562086000_imag_a_00469-b52","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"31464","DOI":"10.1038\/srep31464","article-title":"Retinal structures and visual cortex activity are impaired\n                        prior to clinical vision loss in glaucoma","volume":"6","author":"Murphy","year":"2016","journal-title":"Scientific 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