{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,9,12]],"date-time":"2026-09-12T23:20:34Z","timestamp":1789255234921,"version":"build-2803163510"},"reference-count":49,"publisher":"MIT Press","issue":"3","content-domain":{"domain":["direct.mit.edu"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:p>This paper asks whether increasing public school funding can be an effective long-run crime-prevention strategy in the United States. Specifically, we examine the effect of increases in funding early in children\u2019s lives on the likelihood that they are arrested as adults. We exploit quasi-experimental variation in public school funding, leveraging two natural experiments in Michigan and a novel administrative data set linking the universe of Michigan public school students to adult criminal justice records. The first research design exploits variation in operating expenditures due to Michigan\u2019s 1994 school finance reform, Proposal A. The second design exploits variation in capital spending by leveraging close school district capital bond elections in a regression discontinuity framework. In both cases, we find that students exposed to additional funding during elementary school were substantially less likely to be arrested in adulthood. We show that the social benefits of increasing school funding are greater than the costs, even when considering only the crime-reducing benefits.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1162\/rest_a_01452","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,5,6]],"date-time":"2024-05-06T12:38:07Z","timestamp":1714999087000},"page":"663-680","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/mitpressjournals.corrections.policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Public School Funding, School Quality, and Adult Crime"],"prefix":"10.1162","volume":"108","author":[{"given":"E. Jason","family":"Baron","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Duke University and NBER"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joshua","family":"Hyman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Amherst College and NBER"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Brittany","family":"Vasquez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Michigan"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"281","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"250","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jrurstud.2022.05.010","article-title":"Crime and Safety in Rural Areas: A Systematic Review of the English-Language Literature 1980\u20132020","volume":"94","author":"Abraham","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Rural Studies"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1257\/pol.20200660","article-title":"Effect of Early Childhood Education on Adult Criminality: Evidence from the 1960s through 1990s","volume":"15","author":"Anders","year":"2023","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Economic Policy"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib3","article-title":"JUE Insight: The Impact of School Spending on Civic Engagement: Evidence from School Finance Reforms","volume":"143","author":"Asker","journal-title":"Journal of Urban Economics"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026052619164507000_bib4","first-page":"165","article-title":"School to Prison Pipeline: Long-Run Impacts of School Suspensions on Adult Crime","volume":"16","author":"Bacher-Hicks","year":"2024","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Economic Policy"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1257\/pol.20200226","article-title":"School Spending and Student Outcomes: Evidence from Revenue Limit Elections in Wisconsin","volume":"14","author":"Baron","year":"2022","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Economic Policy"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.17848\/9780585223940","volume-title":"Who Benefits from State and Local Economic Development Policies?","author":"Bartik","year":"1991"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"105","DOI":"10.1162\/qjec.2009.124.1.105","article-title":"Building Criminal Capital behind Bars: Peer Effects in Juvenile Corrections","volume":"124","author":"Bayer","year":"2009","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"issue":"576","key":"2026052619164507000_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"480","DOI":"10.1111\/ecoj.12137","article-title":"Crime Deterrence: Evidence from the London 2011 Riots","volume":"124","author":"Bell","year":"2014","journal-title":"Economic Journal"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026052619164507000_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.1086\/717895","article-title":"Why Does Education Reduce Crime?","volume":"130","author":"Bell","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026052619164507000_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1269","DOI":"10.1086\/705330","article-title":"Incarceration, Recidivism, and Employment","volume":"128","author":"Bhuller","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"126","DOI":"10.1257\/app.20170249","article-title":"Partners in Crime","volume":"11","author":"Billings","year":"2019","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3386\/w25730","article-title":"Schools, Neighborhoods, and the Long-Run Effect of Crime-Prone Peers","author":"Billings","year":"2019"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026052619164507000_bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1257\/app.20160056","article-title":"Life after Lead: Effects of Early Interventions for Children Exposed to Lead","volume":"10","author":"Billings","year":"2018","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1093\/restud\/rdab030","article-title":"Quasi-Experimental Shift-Share Research Designs","volume":"89","author":"Borusyak","year":"2022","journal-title":"Review of Economic Studies"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2021.104586","article-title":"School District Revenue Shocks, Resource Allocations, and Student Achievement: Evidence from the Universe of US Wind Energy Installations","volume":"206","author":"Brunner","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Public Economics"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026052619164507000_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2295","DOI":"10.3982\/ECTA11757","article-title":"Robust Nonparametric Confidence Intervals for Regression-Discontinuity Designs","volume":"82","author":"Calonico","year":"2014","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"215","DOI":"10.1162\/qjec.2010.125.1.215","article-title":"The Value of School Facility Investments: Evidence from a Dynamic Regression Discontinuity Design","volume":"125","author":"Cellini","year":"2010","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib18","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118519639.wbecpx193","article-title":"Economic Costs of Crime","volume-title":"The Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment","author":"Chalfin","year":"2015"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib19","first-page":"167","article-title":"Are U.S. Cities Underpoliced? Theory and Evidence","volume":"100","author":"Chalfin","year":"2018"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026052619164507000_bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"139","DOI":"10.1257\/aeri.20200792","article-title":"Police Force Size and Civilian Race","volume":"4","author":"Chalfin","year":"2022","journal-title":"American Economic Review: Insights"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026052619164507000_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1191","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0262.2006.00702.x","article-title":"Effect of School Choice on Participants: Evidence from Randomized Lotteries","volume":"74","author":"Cullen","year":"2006","journal-title":"Econometrica"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026052619164507000_bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2063","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjr036","article-title":"Better Schools, Less Crime?","volume":"126","author":"Deming","year":"2011","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026052619164507000_bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1086\/682718","article-title":"Medium-Term Impacts of High-Achieving Charter Schools","volume":"123","author":"Dobbie","year":"2015","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib24","article-title":"Missing Manual: Using National Student Clearinghouse Data to Track Postsecondary Outcomes","volume":"37","author":"Dynarski","year":"2015","journal-title":"Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/imhj.21759","article-title":"Early Childhood Education and Crime","volume":"40","author":"Garcia","year":"2019","journal-title":"Infant Mental Health"},{"issue":"8","key":"2026052619164507000_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2586","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.20181047","article-title":"Bartik Instruments: What, When, Why, and How","volume":"110","author":"Goldsmith-Pinkham","year":"2020","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"issue":"9","key":"2026052619164507000_bib27","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"3376","DOI":"10.1086\/708725","article-title":"Understanding How Low Levels of Early Lead Exposure Affect Children\u2019s Life Trajectories","volume":"128","author":"Gr\u00f6nqvist","year":"2020","journal-title":"Journal of Political Economy"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"114","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2009.11.001","article-title":"Rate of Return to the HighScope Perry Preschool Program","volume":"94","author":"Heckman","year":"2010","journal-title":"Journal of Public Economics"},{"issue":"6","key":"2026052619164507000_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2052","DOI":"10.1257\/aer.103.6.2052","article-title":"Understanding the Mechanisms through Which an Influential Early Childhood Program Boosted Adult Outcomes","volume":"103","author":"Heckman","year":"2013","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjw033","article-title":"Thinking Fast and Slow? Some Field Experiments to Reduce Crime and Dropout in Chicago","volume":"132","author":"Heller","year":"2017","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026052619164507000_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1209","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjaa006","article-title":"A Unified Welfare Analysis of Government Policies","volume":"135","author":"Hendren","year":"2020","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"issue":"587","key":"2026052619164507000_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1290","DOI":"10.1111\/ecoj.12204","article-title":"Effect of Education on Criminal Convictions and Incarceration: Causal Evidence from Micro-Data","volume":"125","author":"Hjalmarsson","year":"2015","journal-title":"Economic Journal"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"143","DOI":"10.1016\/j.econedurev.2016.05.007","article-title":"Does Investing in School Capital Infrastructure Improve Student Achievement?","volume":"53","author":"Hong","year":"2016","journal-title":"Economics of Education Review"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026052619164507000_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"256","DOI":"10.1257\/pol.20150249","article-title":"Does Money Matter in the Long Run? Effects of School Spending on Educational Attainment","volume":"9","author":"Hyman","year":"2017","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Economic Policy"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","DOI":"10.3386\/w25368","article-title":"Does School Spending Matter? New Literature on an Old Question","author":"Jackson","year":"2018"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"157","DOI":"10.1093\/qje\/qjv036","article-title":"Effects of School Spending on Educational and Economic Outcomes: Evidence from School Finance Reforms","volume":"131","author":"Jackson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Quarterly Journal of Economics"},{"issue":"5","key":"2026052619164507000_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1560","DOI":"10.1257\/000282803322655446","article-title":"Are Idle Hands the Devil\u2019s Workshop? Incapacitation, Concentration, and Juvenile Crime","volume":"93","author":"Jacob","year":"2003","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib38","article-title":"Mental Health and Criminal Involvement: Evidence from Losing Medicaid Eligibility","author":"J\u00e1come","year":"2020"},{"issue":"4","key":"2026052619164507000_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"310","DOI":"10.1257\/pol.20180510","article-title":"Reducing Inequality through Dynamic Complementarity: Evidence from Head Start and Public School Spending","volume":"11","author":"Johnson","year":"2019","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Economic Policy"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026052619164507000_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1257\/app.20160567","article-title":"School Finance Reform and the Distribution of Student Achievement","volume":"10","author":"Lafortune","year":"2018","journal-title":"American Economic Journal: Applied Economics"},{"issue":"3","key":"2026052619164507000_bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"811","DOI":"10.1111\/j.0020-6598.2004.00288.x","article-title":"Education, Work, and Crime: A Human Capital Approach","volume":"45","author":"Lochner","year":"2004","journal-title":"International Economic Review"},{"issue":"1","key":"2026052619164507000_bib42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"155","DOI":"10.1257\/000282804322970751","article-title":"Effect of Education on Crime: Evidence from Prison Inmates, Arrests, and Self-Reports","volume":"94","author":"Lochner","year":"2004","journal-title":"American Economic Review"},{"issue":"552","key":"2026052619164507000_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-0297.2011.02430.x","article-title":"Crime Reducing Effect of Education","volume":"121","author":"Machin","year":"2011","journal-title":"Economic Journal"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"13","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2016.05.002","article-title":"Investing in Schools: Capital Spending, Facility Conditions, and Student Achievement","volume":"140","author":"Martorell","year":"2016","journal-title":"Journal of Public Economics"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"98","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2009.12.002","article-title":"Cost of Crime to Society: New Crime-Specific Estimates for Policy and Program Evaluation","volume":"2","author":"McCollister","year":"2010","journal-title":"Drug and Alcohol Dependence"},{"issue":"2","key":"2026052619164507000_bib46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"698","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jeconom.2007.05.005","article-title":"Manipulation of the Running Variable in the Regression Discontinuity Design: A Density Test","volume":"142","author":"McCrary","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of Econometrics"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"174","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jpubeco.2018.12.003","article-title":"More COPS, Less Crime","volume":"172","author":"Mello","year":"2019","journal-title":"Journal of Public Economics"},{"key":"2026052619164507000_bib48","article-title":"Effects of Teacher Quality on Adult Criminal Justice Contact","author":"Rose","year":"2021"},{"issue":"51","key":"2026052619164507000_bib49","article-title":"Does Money Still Matter? Attainment and Earnings Effects of Post-1990 School Finance Reforms","volume":"50","author":"Rothstein","year":"2022","journal-title":"Journal of Labor Economics"}],"container-title":["Review of Economics and Statistics"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/rest\/article-pdf\/108\/3\/663\/2368521\/rest_a_01452.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/rest\/article-pdf\/108\/3\/663\/2368521\/rest_a_01452.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,26]],"date-time":"2026-05-26T23:16:49Z","timestamp":1779837409000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/direct.mit.edu\/rest\/article\/108\/3\/663\/120877\/Public-School-Funding-School-Quality-and-Adult"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"references-count":49,"journal-issue":{"issue":"3","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,21]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1162\/rest_a_01452","relation":{},"ISSN":["0034-6535","1530-9142"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0034-6535","type":"print"},{"value":"1530-9142","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,5]]}}}