{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T07:32:49Z","timestamp":1774078369672,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"Oxford University Press (OUP)","issue":"1","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,1]],"date-time":"2014-01-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1388534400000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/pages\/standard-publication-reuse-rights"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":[],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,1]]},"abstract":"<jats:title>Abstract<\/jats:title>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Rationale<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Current guidelines limit latent tuberculosis infection (LTBI) evaluation to persons in the United States less than or equal to 5 years based on the assumption that high TB rates among recent entrants are attributable to high LTBI reactivation risk, which declines over time. We hypothesized that high postarrival TB rates may instead be caused by imported active TB.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objectives<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Estimate reactivation and imported TB in an immigrant cohort.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We linked preimmigration records from a cohort of California-bound Filipino immigrants during 2001\u20132010 with subsequent TB reports. TB was likely LTBI reactivation if the immigrant had no evidence of active TB at preimmigration examination, likely imported if preimmigration radiograph was abnormal and TB was reported less than or equal to 6 months after arrival, and likely reactivation of inactive TB if radiograph was abnormal but TB was reported more than 6 months after arrival.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Measurements and Main Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Among 123,114 immigrants, 793 TB cases were reported. Within 1 year of preimmigration examination, 85% of TB was imported; 6 and 9% were reactivation of LTBI and inactive TB, respectively. Conversely, during Years 2\u20139 after U.S. entry, 76 and 24% were reactivation of LTBI and inactive TB, respectively. The rate of LTBI reactivation (32 per 100,000) did not decline during Years 1\u20139.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>High postarrival TB rates were caused by detection of imported TB through active postarrival surveillance. Among immigrants without active TB at baseline, reported TB did not decline over 9 years, indicating sustained high risk of LTBI reactivation. Revised guidelines should support LTBI screening and treatment more than 5 years after U.S. arrival.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201308-1480oc","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,14]],"date-time":"2022-07-14T22:03:22Z","timestamp":1657836202000},"page":"88-95","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":58,"title":["Persistent Latent Tuberculosis Reactivation Risk in United States Immigrants"],"prefix":"10.1093","volume":"189","author":[{"given":"Nicholas D.","family":"Walter","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Division of Pulmonary Sciences and Critical Care Medicine, University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, Colorado"},{"name":"Denver Metro Tuberculosis Control Program, Denver Public Health Department, Denver, Colorado"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"John","family":"Painter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Immigrant, Refugee, and Migrant Health Branch, Division of Global Migration and Quarantine, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Matthew","family":"Parker","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Denver Metro Tuberculosis Control Program, Denver Public Health Department, Denver, Colorado"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Phillip","family":"Lowenthal","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tuberculosis Control Branch, Division of Communicable Disease Control, Center for Infectious Diseases, California Department of Public Health, Richmond, California"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Jennifer","family":"Flood","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Tuberculosis Control Branch, Division of Communicable Disease Control, Center for Infectious Diseases, California Department of Public Health, Richmond, California"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Yunxin","family":"Fu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Human Genetics Center and Division of Biostatistics, School of Public Health, University of Texas Health Science Center, Houston, Texas; and"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Redentor","family":"Asis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"St. Luke\u2019s Medical Center Extension Clinic, Manila, Philippines"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Randall","family":"Reves","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Denver Metro Tuberculosis Control Program, Denver Public Health Department, Denver, Colorado"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"286","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib1","first-page":"201","article-title":"Trends in tuberculosis\u2014United States, 2012","volume":"62","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)","year":"2013","journal-title":"MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e27405","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0027405","article-title":"Estimating the burden of tuberculosis among foreign-born persons acquired prior to entering the U.S., 2005-2009","volume":"6","author":"Ricks","year":"2011","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib3","first-page":"1","article-title":"Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection","volume":"49","author":"American Thoracic Society","year":"2000","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm Rep"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib4","article-title":"Ending neglect: the elimination of tuberculosis in the United States","author":"Geiter","year":"2000"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib5","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"304","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1997.03550040060038","article-title":"Long-term risk of tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States","volume":"278","author":"Zuber","year":"1997","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib6","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1071","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199504203321606","article-title":"The epidemiology of tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States, 1986 to 1993","volume":"332","author":"McKenna","year":"1995","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib7","first-page":"1","article-title":"Recommendations for prevention and control of tuberculosis among foreign-born persons. Report of the Working Group on Tuberculosis among Foreign-Born Persons","volume":"47","author":"Centers for Disease Control and Prevention","year":"1998","journal-title":"MMWR Recomm Rep"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"725","DOI":"10.3201\/eid1105.041107","article-title":"Incident tuberculosis among recent US immigrants and exogenous reinfection","volume":"11","author":"Cohen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"695","DOI":"10.3934\/mbe.2011.8.695","article-title":"Persistent high incidence of tuberculosis among immigrants in a low-incidence country: impact of immigrants with early or late latency","volume":"8","author":"Guo","year":"2011","journal-title":"Math Biosci Eng"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib10","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1811","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.06-2601","article-title":"Risk of progression to active tuberculosis among foreign-born persons with latent tuberculosis","volume":"131","author":"Patel","year":"2007","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib11","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200608-1178OC","article-title":"Tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States: achieving tuberculosis elimination","volume":"175","author":"Cain","year":"2007","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib12","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2406","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa0809497","article-title":"Overseas screening for tuberculosis in U.S.-bound immigrants and refugees","volume":"360","author":"Liu","year":"2009","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib13","article-title":"CDC immigration requirements: technical instructions for tuberculosis screening and treatment using cultures and directly observed therapy","author":"CDC","year":"2009"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib14","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"761","DOI":"10.5588\/ijtld.10.0370","article-title":"Reduced importation of tuberculosis after the implementation of an enhanced pre-immigration screening protocol","volume":"15","author":"Lowenthal","year":"2011","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib15","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"405","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.300.4.405","article-title":"Tuberculosis among foreign-born persons in the United States","volume":"300","author":"Cain","year":"2008","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib16","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1851","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.162.5.2004154","article-title":"Incidence of tuberculosis among a cohort of tuberculin-positive refugees in Australia: reappraising the estimates of risk","volume":"162","author":"Marks","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib17"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib18","article-title":"Global tuberculosis control: WHO report 2011","author":"World Health Organization","year":"2011"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib19","first-page":"216","article-title":"BCG coverage and the annual risk of tuberculosis infection over a 14-year period in the Philippines assessed from the Nationwide Prevalence Surveys","volume":"4","author":"Tupasi","year":"2000","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib20","first-page":"A2330","article-title":"Impact of enhanced pre-immigration evaluation on diagnosis of tuberculosis in California: a retrospective cohort study of Filipino immigrants based on electronic linkage [abstract]","volume":"185","author":"Walter","year":"2012","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib21","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"41","DOI":"10.1177\/1460458210380524","article-title":"Matching AIDS and tuberculosis registry data to identify AIDS\/tuberculosis comorbidity cases in California","volume":"17","author":"Xia","year":"2011","journal-title":"Health Informatics J"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib22","article-title":"Registry plus link plus 2.0","author":"CDC","year":"2007"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib23","article-title":"Fundamentals of biostatistics","author":"Rosner","year":"2011"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib24","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"590","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.201101-0181OC","article-title":"Priorities for screening and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in the United States","volume":"184","author":"Linas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib25","first-page":"219","article-title":"Tuberculosis in a cohort of Vietnamese refugees after arrival in Denmark 1979-1982","volume":"2","author":"Wilcke","year":"1998","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"679","DOI":"10.3201\/eid0807.010482","article-title":"Persistent high incidence of tuberculosis in immigrants in a low-incidence country","volume":"8","author":"Lillebaek","year":"2002","journal-title":"Emerg Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib27","first-page":"37","article-title":"Cohort analysis of asylum seekers in Oslo, Norway, 1987-1995: effectiveness of screening at entry and TB incidence in subsequent years","volume":"9","author":"Johnsen","year":"2005","journal-title":"Int J Tuberc Lung Dis"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib28","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"277","DOI":"10.1016\/0041-3879(91)90054-V","article-title":"Tuberculosis in recent Asian immigrants to British Columbia, Canada: 1982-1985","volume":"72","author":"Wang","year":"1991","journal-title":"Tubercle"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib29","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"805","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm\/137.4.805","article-title":"Tuberculosis in a cohort of Southeast Asian Refugees: a five-year surveillance study","volume":"137","author":"Nolan","year":"1988","journal-title":"Am Rev Respir Dis"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib30","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"107","DOI":"10.1086\/523732","article-title":"Editorial commentary: Overcoming the limits of tuberculosis prevention among foreign-born individuals: next steps toward eliminating tuberculosis","volume":"46","author":"Cain","year":"2008","journal-title":"Clin Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib31","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"418","DOI":"10.1016\/S1473-3099(11)70102-5","article-title":"Is screening immigrants for latent tuberculosis cost-effective?","volume":"11","author":"Mandalakas","year":"2011","journal-title":"Lancet Infect Dis"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib32","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"780","DOI":"10.1164\/ajrccm.161.3.9902005","article-title":"Tuberculosis screening of immigrants to low-prevalence countries. A cost-effectiveness analysis","volume":"161","author":"Schwartzman","year":"2000","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib33","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1008","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMsa043194","article-title":"Domestic returns from investment in the control of tuberculosis in other countries","volume":"353","author":"Schwartzman","year":"2005","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib34","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"1107","DOI":"10.1183\/09031936.05.00074004","article-title":"Cost-effectiveness of tuberculosis control strategies among immigrants and refugees","volume":"25","author":"Dasgupta","year":"2005","journal-title":"Eur Respir J"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib35","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"2155","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJMoa1104875","article-title":"Three months of rifapentine and isoniazid for latent tuberculosis infection","volume":"365","author":"Sterling","year":"2011","journal-title":"N Engl J Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib36","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1378\/chest.09-0394","article-title":"Latent TB infection treatment acceptance and completion in the United States and Canada","volume":"137","author":"Horsburgh","year":"2010","journal-title":"Chest"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"927","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200510-1563OC","article-title":"The scope and impact of treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in the United States and Canada","volume":"173","author":"Sterling","year":"2006","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib38","article-title":"Reported tuberculosis in the United States, 2011","author":"CDC","year":"2012"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib39","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e32158","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0032158","article-title":"Estimating the impact of newly arrived foreign-born persons on tuberculosis in the United States","volume":"7","author":"Liu","year":"2012","journal-title":"PLoS ONE"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib40","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"234","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.166.2.234","article-title":"Assessing the performance of overseas tuberculosis screening programs: a study among US-bound immigrants in Vietnam","volume":"166","author":"Maloney","year":"2006","journal-title":"Arch Intern Med"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib41","first-page":"555","article-title":"Efficacy of various durations of isoniazid preventive therapy for tuberculosis: five years of follow-up in the IUAT trial","volume":"60","author":"International Union Against Tuberculosis Committee on Prophylaxis","year":"1982","journal-title":"Bull World Health Organ"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib42","first-page":"28","article-title":"Controlled chemoprophylaxis trials in tuberculosis. A general review","volume":"26","author":"Ferebee","year":"1970","journal-title":"Bibl Tuberc"},{"key":"2026032100331849100_bib43","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"348","DOI":"10.1164\/rccm.200701-057OC","article-title":"Prevalence of tuberculosis infection in the United States population: the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1999-2000","volume":"177","author":"Bennett","year":"2008","journal-title":"Am J Respir Crit Care Med"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ajrccm\/article-pdf\/189\/1\/88\/67246172\/ajrccm_189_1_88.pdf","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"syndication"},{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ajrccm\/article-pdf\/189\/1\/88\/67246172\/ajrccm_189_1_88.pdf","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T04:34:16Z","timestamp":1774067656000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/academic.oup.com\/ajrccm\/article\/189\/1\/88\/8506025"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,1]]},"references-count":43,"journal-issue":{"issue":"1","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,1]]},"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,1]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1164\/rccm.201308-1480oc","relation":{},"ISSN":["1073-449X","1535-4970"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1073-449X","type":"print"},{"value":"1535-4970","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published-other":{"date-parts":[[2014,1]]},"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,1,1]]}}}