{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,28]],"date-time":"2026-10-28T12:43:48Z","timestamp":1793191428361,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":110,"publisher":"Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]],"date-time":"2025-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749081600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-nd\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]},"DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.66.7.2","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]],"date-time":"2025-06-05T11:30:31Z","timestamp":1749123031000},"page":"2","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":7,"title":["How Have Animal Models Increased our Understanding of Human Myopia?"],"prefix":"10.1167","volume":"66","author":[{"given":"Mark A.","family":"Bullimore","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Houston, College of Optometry, Houston, Texas, United States"},{"name":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6315-3720"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"27","reference":[{"key":"bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"66","DOI":"10.1038\/266066a0","article-title":"Myopia and eye enlargement after neonatal lid fusion in monkeys","volume":"266","author":"Wiesel","year":"1977","journal-title":"Nature"},{"key":"bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"154","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(77)90872-1","article-title":"Myopia in the lid-sutured tree shrew (Tupaia glis)","volume":"124","author":"Sherman","year":"1977","journal-title":"Brain Res"},{"key":"bib3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1249","DOI":"10.1126\/science.694514","article-title":"Extreme myopia produced by modest change in early visual experience","volume":"201","author":"Wallman","year":"1978","journal-title":"Science"},{"key":"bib4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"M31","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-25967","article-title":"IMI - report on experimental models of emmetropization and myopia","volume":"60","author":"Troilo","year":"2019","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"507","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.12312","article-title":"Animal models in myopia research","volume":"98","author":"Schaeffel","year":"2015","journal-title":"Clin Exp Optom"},{"key":"bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"491","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(72)90548-3","article-title":"Visual cortex of the tree shrew (Tupaia glis): architectonic subdivisions and representations of the visual field","volume":"42","author":"Kaas","year":"1972","journal-title":"Brain Res"},{"key":"bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"5274","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cub.2022.10.063","article-title":"Strong tuning for stereoscopic depth indicates orientation-specific recurrent circuitry in tree shrew V1","volume":"32","author":"Tanabe","year":"2022","journal-title":"Curr Biol"},{"key":"bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"447","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuron.2004.08.008","article-title":"Homeostasis of eye growth and the question of myopia","volume":"43","author":"Wallman","year":"2004","journal-title":"Neuron"},{"key":"bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"759","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2023.02.002","article-title":"Emmetropization and nonmyopic eye growth","volume":"68","author":"Rozema","year":"2023","journal-title":"Surv Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3074","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.04-1040","article-title":"Axial growth and changes in lenticular and corneal power during emmetropization in infants","volume":"46","author":"Mutti","year":"2005","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1325","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(94)00222-8","article-title":"Emmetropisation in human infancy: rate of change is related to initial refractive error","volume":"35","author":"Saunders","year":"1995","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1283","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(94)00234-D","article-title":"How applicable are animal myopia models to human juvenile onset myopia?","volume":"35","author":"Zadnik","year":"1995","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib13","first-page":"561","article-title":"Emmetropization: a vision-dependent phenomenon","volume":"20","author":"Rabin","year":"1981","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"680","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-198510000-00003","article-title":"Disease-associated visual image degradation and spherical refractive errors in children","volume":"62","author":"Nathan","year":"1985","journal-title":"Am J Optom Physiol Opt"},{"key":"bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"639","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(88)90113-7","article-title":"Accommodation, refractive error and eye growth in chickens","volume":"28","author":"Schaeffel","year":"1988","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1415","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(98)00229-6","article-title":"The role of optical defocus in regulating refractive development in infant monkeys","volume":"39","author":"Smith","year":"1999","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2799","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(01)00169-9","article-title":"A longitudinal study of the biometric and refractive changes in full-term infants during the first year of life","volume":"41","author":"Pennie","year":"2001","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2004.064212","article-title":"Monovision slows juvenile myopia progression unilaterally","volume":"89","author":"Phillips","year":"2005","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"464","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2021.0082","article-title":"Overminus lens therapy for children 3 to 10 years of age with intermittent exotropia: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"139","author":"Chen","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"97","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2021.4854","article-title":"Broader implications of overminus lens therapy in relation to myopia management","volume":"140","author":"Flitcroft","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2555","DOI":"10.1016\/S0042-6989(02)00258-4","article-title":"Undercorrection of myopia enhances rather than inhibits myopia progression","volume":"42","author":"Chung","year":"2002","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1444-0938.2006.00055.x","article-title":"The possible effect of undercorrection on myopic progression in children","volume":"89","author":"Adler","year":"2006","journal-title":"Clin Exp Optom"},{"key":"bib23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"683","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000000867","article-title":"Relationship between reduced accommodative lag and myopia progression","volume":"93","author":"Koomson","year":"2016","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2386","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2009.07.011","article-title":"Relative peripheral hyperopic defocus alters central refractive development in infant monkeys","volume":"49","author":"Smith","year":"2009","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib25","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1029","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3182279cfa","article-title":"Prentice Award Lecture 2010: a case for peripheral optical treatment strategies for myopia","volume":"88","author":"Smith","year":"2011","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"641","DOI":"10.1097\/01.opx.0000232840.66716.af","article-title":"Peripheral refraction in orthokeratology patients","volume":"83","author":"Charman","year":"2006","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"476","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e31820f16fb","article-title":"Peripheral refraction in myopic children wearing orthokeratology and gas-permeable lenses","volume":"88","author":"Kang","year":"2011","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"455","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-023-02723-5","article-title":"Optical interventions for myopia control","volume":"38","author":"Logan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7077","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.12-10565","article-title":"Retardation of myopia in Orthokeratology (ROMIO) study: a 2-year randomized clinical trial","volume":"53","author":"Cho","year":"2012","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1215","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000000066","article-title":"Peripheral defocus with spherical and multifocal soft contact lenses","volume":"90","author":"Berntsen","year":"2013","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"631","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3181ea19c7","article-title":"Spectacle lenses designed to reduce progression of myopia: 12-month results","volume":"87","author":"Sankaridurg","year":"2010","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"537","DOI":"10.1007\/s10384-018-0616-3","article-title":"Effect of spectacle lenses designed to reduce relative peripheral hyperopia on myopia progression in Japanese children: a 2-year multicenter randomized controlled trial","volume":"62","author":"Kanda","year":"2018","journal-title":"Jpn J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"103","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2023.08.019","article-title":"Evaluating the effect of a myopia control spectacle lens among children in Israel: 12-month results","volume":"257","author":"Yuval","year":"2024","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3949","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.16-19704","article-title":"The effects of the relative strength of simultaneous competing defocus signals on emmetropization in infant rhesus monkeys","volume":"57","author":"Arumugam","year":"2016","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001410","article-title":"A 3-year randomized clinical trial of MiSight lenses for myopia control","volume":"96","author":"Chamberlain","year":"2019","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"363","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2018-313739","article-title":"Defocus incorporated multiple segments (DIMS) spectacle lenses slow myopia progression: a 2-year randomised clinical trial","volume":"104","author":"Lam","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2022.0401","article-title":"Spectacle lenses with aspherical lenslets for myopia control vs single-vision spectacle lenses: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"140","author":"Bao","year":"2022","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"37","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(94)E0049-Q","article-title":"Moving the retina: choroidal modulation of refractive state","volume":"35","author":"Wallman","year":"1995","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1175","DOI":"10.1016\/0042-6989(94)00233-C","article-title":"Choroidal and scleral mechanisms of compensation for spectacle lenses in chicks","volume":"35","author":"Wildsoet","year":"1995","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib40","first-page":"1259","article-title":"Vision-dependent changes in the choroidal thickness of macaque monkeys","volume":"41","author":"Hung","year":"2000","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6262","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.10-5457","article-title":"Human optical axial length and defocus","volume":"51","author":"Read","year":"2010","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.64.6.4","article-title":"IMI - the dynamic choroid: new insights, challenges, and potential significance for human myopia","volume":"64","author":"Ostrin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1064","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000000894","article-title":"Effects of orthokeratology on choroidal thickness and axial length","volume":"93","author":"Chen","year":"2016","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib44","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e454","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.13866","article-title":"Change in subfoveal choroidal thickness secondary to orthokeratology and its cessation: a predictor for the change in axial length","volume":"97","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"417","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clae.2017.09.010","article-title":"Choroidal thickness and axial length changes in myopic children treated with orthokeratology","volume":"40","author":"Li","year":"2017","journal-title":"Cont Lens Anterior Eye"},{"key":"bib46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2963","DOI":"10.1007\/s10792-021-01855-5","article-title":"Changes in subfoveal choroidal thickness in myopic children with 0.01% atropine, orthokeratology, or their combination","volume":"41","author":"Hao","year":"2021","journal-title":"Int Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib47","first-page":"15","article-title":"Effects of atropine treatment on choroidal thickness in myopic children","volume":"61","author":"Ye","year":"2020","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"286","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2022.10.002","article-title":"Longitudinal changes and predictive value of choroidal thickness for myopia control following repeated low-level red-light therapy","volume":"130","author":"Xiong","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"bib49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1013","DOI":"10.1111\/ceo.14149","article-title":"Sustained and rebound effect of repeated low-level red-light therapy on myopia control: a 2-year post-trial follow-up study","volume":"50","author":"Xiong","year":"2022","journal-title":"Clin Exp Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"9","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.8.4.9","article-title":"Weekly changes in axial length and choroidal thickness in children during and following orthokeratology treatment with different compression factors","volume":"8","author":"Lau","year":"2019","journal-title":"Transl Vis Sci Technol"},{"key":"bib51","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"e454","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.13866","article-title":"Change in subfoveal choroidal thickness secondary to orthokeratology and its cessation: a predictor for the change in axial length","volume":"97","author":"Li","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1017\/S0952523800001565","article-title":"Constant light affects retinal dopamine levels and blocks deprivation myopia but not lens-induced refractive errors in chickens","volume":"11","author":"Bartmann","year":"1994","journal-title":"Vis Neurosci"},{"key":"bib53","first-page":"1146","article-title":"Continuous ambient lighting and eye growth in primates","volume":"42","author":"Smith","year":"2001","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"147","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2018.07.004","article-title":"Narrow-band, long-wavelength lighting promotes hyperopia and retards vision-induced myopia in infant rhesus monkeys","volume":"176","author":"Hung","year":"2018","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"bib55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"75","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2016.12.004","article-title":"The wavelength composition and temporal modulation of ambient lighting strongly affect refractive development in young tree shrews","volume":"155","author":"Gawne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"bib56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"911","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001283","article-title":"Juvenile tress shrews do not maintain emmetropia in narrow-band blue light","volume":"95","author":"Gawne","year":"2018","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108402","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2024.108402","article-title":"Mechanisms of emmetropization and what might go wrong in myopia","volume":"220","author":"Schaeffel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"509","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2021.11.023","article-title":"Effect of repeated low-level red-light therapy for myopia control in children: a multicenter randomized controlled trial","volume":"129","author":"Jiang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"bib59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"801","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.13306","article-title":"Red light therapy for myopia: merits, risks and questions","volume":"44","author":"Schaeffel","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"bib60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"241","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.13272","article-title":"Red light instruments for myopia exceed safety limits","volume":"44","author":"Ostrin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"bib61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"43","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001970","article-title":"Compensation for vitreous chamber elongation in infancy and childhood","volume":"100","author":"Mutti","year":"2023","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108161","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2022.108161","article-title":"Limited bandwidth short-wavelength light produces slowly-developing myopia in tree shrews similar to human juvenile-onset myopia","volume":"204","author":"Khanal","year":"2023","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"55","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2017.07.011","article-title":"Long-wavelength (red) light produces hyperopia in juvenile and adolescent tree shrews","volume":"140","author":"Gawne","year":"2017","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1016\/j.visres.2004.12.013","article-title":"Ocular compensation for alternating myopic and hyperopic defocus","volume":"45","author":"Winawer","year":"2005","journal-title":"Vision Res"},{"key":"bib65","first-page":"291","article-title":"Effects of brief periods of unrestricted vision on the development of form-deprivation myopia in monkeys","volume":"43","author":"Smith","year":"2002","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3524","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.06-1118","article-title":"Parental history of myopia, sports and outdoor activities, and future myopia","volume":"48","author":"Jones","year":"2007","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"46","DOI":"10.1097\/00006324-200201000-00012","article-title":"Seasonal variation in myopia progression and ocular elongation","volume":"79","author":"Fulk","year":"2002","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1196","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0b013e3182640996","article-title":"Myopia progression in Chinese children is slower in summer than in winter","volume":"89","author":"Donovan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.13-13029","article-title":"Seasonal variations in the progression of myopia in children enrolled in the correction of myopia evaluation trial","volume":"55","author":"Gwiazda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"40","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2013-303914","article-title":"Defocus Incorporated Soft Contact (DISC) lens slows myopia progression in Hong Kong Chinese schoolchildren: a 2-year randomised clinical trial","volume":"98","author":"Lam","year":"2014","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2510","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.06-0562","article-title":"Refractive error, axial length, and relative peripheral refractive error before and after the onset of myopia","volume":"48","author":"Mutti","year":"2007","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.09-4826","article-title":"Relative peripheral refractive error and the risk of onset and progression of myopia in children","volume":"52","author":"Mutti","year":"2011","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1181","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.10-5601","article-title":"Peripheral refraction and refractive error in Singapore Chinese children","volume":"52","author":"Sng","year":"2011","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"283","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12057","article-title":"Relative peripheral refraction in children: twelve-month changes in eyes with different ametropias","volume":"33","author":"Lee","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"bib75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"985","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.13185","article-title":"Relative peripheral hyperopia leads to greater short-term axial length growth in White children with myopia","volume":"43","author":"Leighton","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"bib76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.64.14.3","article-title":"Peripheral defocus, pupil size, and axial eye growth in children wearing soft multifocal contact lenses in the BLINK study","volume":"64","author":"Berntsen","year":"2023","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"328","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1755-3768.2009.01688.x","article-title":"Effects of 7-methylxanthine on the sclera in form deprivation myopia in guinea pigs","volume":"89","author":"Cui","year":"2011","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.17-22337","article-title":"The adenosine receptor antagonist, 7-methylxanthine, alters emmetropizing responses in infant macaques","volume":"59","author":"Hung","year":"2018","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"85","DOI":"10.1007\/s12177-008-9013-3","article-title":"Systemic 7-methylxanthine in retarding axial eye growth and myopia progression: a 36-month pilot study","volume":"1","author":"Trier","year":"2008","journal-title":"J Ocul Biol Dis Infor"},{"key":"bib80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"108438","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2021.108438","article-title":"Topically instilled caffeine selectively alters emmetropizing responses in infant rhesus monkeys","volume":"203","author":"Smith","year":"2021","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"bib81","first-page":"250","article-title":"Myopia control efficacy of topical caffeine alone and in combination with atropine \u2013 results from a prospective, longitudinal clinical trial - part I","volume":"63","author":"Tran","year":"2022","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"434","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-023-02718-2","article-title":"Low concentration atropine and myopia: a narrative review of the evidence for United Kingdom based practitioners","volume":"38","author":"Jawaid","year":"2024","journal-title":"Eye (Lond)"},{"key":"bib83","first-page":"205","article-title":"Atropine reduces experimental myopia and eye enlargement via a nonaccommodative mechanism","volume":"34","author":"McBrien","year":"1993","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"233","DOI":"10.1034\/j.1600-0420.2001.790304.x","article-title":"An intervention trial on efficacy of atropine and multi-focal glasses in controlling myopic progression","volume":"79","author":"Shih","year":"2001","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol Scand"},{"key":"bib85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2285","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2006.05.062","article-title":"Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia","volume":"113","author":"Chua","year":"2006","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"bib86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1667","DOI":"10.1001\/archopht.122.11.1667","article-title":"Safety and efficacy of 2% pirenzepine ophthalmic gel in children with myopia: a 1-year, multicenter, double-masked, placebo-controlled parallel study","volume":"122","author":"Siatkowski","year":"2004","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"373","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12052","article-title":"How does atropine exert its anti-myopia effects?","volume":"33","author":"McBrien","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"bib88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4501","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.15629","article-title":"Insights into the mechanism by which atropine inhibits myopia: evidence against cholinergic hyperactivity and modulation of dopamine release","volume":"178","author":"Thomson","year":"2021","journal-title":"Br J Pharmacol"},{"key":"bib89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"115542","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopha.2023.115542","article-title":"The role of the serotonergic system in atropine's anti-myopic effects","volume":"167","author":"Thomson","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed Pharmacother"},{"key":"bib90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"572","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2008.10.020","article-title":"Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia: effect on myopia progression after cessation of atropine","volume":"116","author":"Tong","year":"2009","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"bib91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2023.5467","article-title":"Topical atropine for childhood myopia control: the Atropine Treatment Long-Term Assessment Study","volume":"142","author":"Li","year":"2024","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"347","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2011.07.031","article-title":"Atropine for the treatment of childhood myopia: safety and efficacy of 0.5%, 0.1%, and 0.01% doses (Atropine for the Treatment of Myopia 2)","volume":"119","author":"Chia","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"bib93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2457","DOI":"10.1007\/s00417-018-4078-6","article-title":"Current trends among pediatric ophthalmologists to decrease myopia progression-an international perspective","volume":"256","author":"Zloto","year":"2018","journal-title":"Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"303","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2017.6638","article-title":"Low-dose atropine for myopia control: considering all the data","volume":"136","author":"Bullimore","year":"2018","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"756","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2023.2855","article-title":"Low-dose 0.01% atropine eye drops vs placebo for myopia control: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"141","author":"Repka","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"113","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2018.05.029","article-title":"Low-concentration atropine for myopia progression (LAMP) study: a randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trial of 0.05%, 0.025%, and 0.01% atropine eye drops in myopia control","volume":"126","author":"Yam","year":"2019","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"bib97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"230","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.12967","article-title":"Which low-dose atropine for myopia control?","volume":"103","author":"Khanal","year":"2020","journal-title":"Clin Exp Optom"},{"key":"bib98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2016.01.006","article-title":"Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050","volume":"123","author":"Holden","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"bib99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1632","DOI":"10.1001\/archophthalmol.2009.303","article-title":"Increased prevalence of myopia in the United States between 1971\u20131972 and 1999\u20132004","volume":"127","author":"Vitale","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2016.4009","article-title":"Association of axial length with risk of uncorrectable visual impairment for Europeans with myopia","volume":"134","author":"Tideman","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"15283","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-023-42108-y","article-title":"The underestimated role of myopia in uncorrectable visual impairment in the United States","volume":"13","author":"Bullimore","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"bib102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3125","DOI":"10.1364\/BOE.486555","article-title":"Comparison of optical myopia control interventions: effect on peripheral image quality and vision","volume":"14","author":"Papadogiannis","year":"2023","journal-title":"Biomed Opt Express"},{"key":"bib103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1389","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2024.07.002","article-title":"Novel lenslet-ARray-integrated spectacle lenses for myopia control: a 1-year randomized, double-masked, controlled trial","volume":"131","author":"Su","year":"2024","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"bib104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1709","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo-2021-321005","article-title":"Control of myopia using diffusion optics spectacle lenses: 12-month results of a randomised controlled, efficacy and safety study (CYPRESS)","volume":"107","author":"Rappon","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib105","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"337","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.13426","article-title":"Mechanism of optical treatments for myopia: are lenslets joining the DOTs?","volume":"45","author":"Guggenheim","year":"2025","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"bib106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2015.01.022","article-title":"International photographic classification and grading system for myopic maculopathy","volume":"159","author":"Ohno-Matsui","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib107","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2781","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.19-26580","article-title":"Trends in the prevalence of myopia and myopic maculopathy in a Japanese population: the Hisayama study","volume":"60","author":"Ueda","year":"2019","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1254","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2019-315255","article-title":"Prevalence of myopic maculopathy in the German population: results from the Gutenberg Health Study","volume":"104","author":"Hopf","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib109","first-page":"415","article-title":"Diagnosis and treatment of myopic maculopathy","volume":"7","author":"Yokoi","year":"2018","journal-title":"Asia Pac J Ophthalmol (Phila)"},{"key":"bib110","volume-title":"Myopia: Causes, Prevention, and Treatment of an Increasingly Common Disease","author":"National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, and Medicine; Division of Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education; Board on Behavioral, Cognitive, and Sensory Sciences; Committee on Focus on Myopia: Pathogenesis and Rising Incidence","year":"2024"}],"container-title":["Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/iovs.arvojournals.org\/article.aspx?articleid=2803083","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T21:31:59Z","timestamp":1791927119000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/iovs.arvojournals.org\/article.aspx?articleid=2803083"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]},"references-count":110,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.66.7.2","relation":{},"ISSN":["1552-5783"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1552-5783","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]}}}