{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,22]],"date-time":"2026-10-22T18:30:08Z","timestamp":1792693808507,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":105,"publisher":"Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO)","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]],"date-time":"2025-06-05T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1749081600000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci."],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]},"DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.66.7.4","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]],"date-time":"2025-06-05T11:30:35Z","timestamp":1749123035000},"page":"4","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":21,"title":["Perspectives on Genetic and Environmental Factors in Myopia, Its Prediction, and the Future Direction of Research"],"prefix":"10.1167","volume":"66","author":[{"given":"Katie M.","family":"Williams","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Academic Ophthalmology, School of Life Course and Population Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom"},{"name":"Moorfields Eye Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom"},{"name":"Great Ormond Street Hospital for Children NHS Foundation Trust, London, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christopher J.","family":"Hammond","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Section of Academic Ophthalmology, School of Life Course and Population Sciences, Faculty of Life Sciences & Medicine, King's College London, London, United Kingdom"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"27","reference":[{"issue":"7543","key":"bib1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"276","DOI":"10.1038\/519276a","article-title":"The myopia boom","volume":"519","author":"Dolgin","year":"2015","journal-title":"Nature"},{"issue":"7","key":"bib2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1489","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2015.03.018","article-title":"Increasing prevalence of myopia in Europe and the impact of education","volume":"122","author":"Williams","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"10","key":"bib4","first-page":"684","article-title":"Epidemiologic study of the prevalence and severity of myopia among schoolchildren in Taiwan in 2000","volume":"100","author":"Lin","year":"2001","journal-title":"J Formos Med Assoc"},{"issue":"5","key":"bib5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1839","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.05-1081","article-title":"A cohort study of incident myopia in Singaporean children","volume":"47","author":"Saw","year":"2006","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"11","key":"bib6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1233","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2019.3103","article-title":"Current prevalence of myopia and association of myopia with environmental factors among schoolchildren in Japan","volume":"137","author":"Yotsukura","year":"2019","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"5","key":"bib7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1036","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2016.01.006","article-title":"Global prevalence of myopia and high myopia and temporal trends from 2000 through 2050","volume":"123","author":"Holden","year":"2016","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1078","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2018-312439","article-title":"Early life factors for myopia in the British Twins Early Development Study","volume":"103","author":"Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"5","key":"bib9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"797","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2010.09.025","article-title":"Myopia over the lifecourse: prevalence and early life influences in the 1958 British birth cohort","volume":"118","author":"Rahi","year":"2011","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1279","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2007.12.019","article-title":"Outdoor activity reduces the prevalence of myopia in children","volume":"115","author":"Rose","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"769","DOI":"10.1001\/archophthalmol.2009.105","article-title":"Associations between near work, outdoor activity, and myopia among adolescent students in rural China: the Xichang Pediatric Refractive Error Study Report No. 2","volume":"127","author":"Lu","year":"2009","journal-title":"Arch Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"1","key":"bib12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"203","DOI":"10.1186\/s12886-017-0598-9","article-title":"Near work, outdoor activity, and myopia in children in rural China: the Handan Offspring Myopia Study","volume":"17","author":"Lin","year":"2017","journal-title":"BMC Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"551","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.13403","article-title":"Time spent in outdoor activities in relation to myopia prevention and control: a meta-analysis and systematic review","volume":"95","author":"Xiong","year":"2017","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"2","key":"bib14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"752","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.13-13029","article-title":"Seasonal variations in the progression of myopia in children enrolled in the correction of myopia evaluation trial","volume":"55","author":"Gwiazda","year":"2014","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"bib15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e256","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.13904","article-title":"Influence of seasons upon personal light exposure and longitudinal axial length changes in young adults","volume":"97","author":"Ulaganathan","year":"2019","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"172","DOI":"10.1016\/j.exer.2019.04.020","article-title":"Monochromatic and white light and the regulation of eye growth","volume":"184","author":"Rucker","year":"2019","journal-title":"Exp Eye Res"},{"key":"bib17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"210","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2016.12.007","article-title":"Violet light exposure can be a preventive strategy against myopia progression","volume":"15","author":"Torii","year":"2017","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"252","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12207","article-title":"Elevated light levels in schools have a protective effect on myopia","volume":"35","author":"Hua","year":"2015","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"issue":"10","key":"bib19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2047","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2014.04.017","article-title":"Myopia and level of education: results from the Gutenberg Health Study","volume":"121","author":"Mirshahi","year":"2014","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1117","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo.2007.128256","article-title":"A comparison of measures of reading and intelligence as risk factors for the development of myopia in a UK cohort of children","volume":"92","author":"Williams","year":"2008","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"10","key":"bib21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2141","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2012.04.020","article-title":"The association between time spent outdoors and myopia in children and adolescents: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"119","author":"Sherwin","year":"2012","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"329","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12040","article-title":"Myopia and international educational performance","volume":"33","author":"Morgan","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"key":"bib23","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"k2022","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.k2022","article-title":"Education and myopia: assessing the direction of causality by mendelian randomisation","volume":"361","author":"Mountjoy","year":"2018","journal-title":"BMJ"},{"issue":"10","key":"bib24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2100","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2013.02.035","article-title":"Risk factors for incident myopia in Australian schoolchildren: the Sydney Adolescent Vascular and Eye Study","volume":"120","author":"French","year":"2013","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"12","key":"bib26","first-page":"3633","article-title":"Parental myopia, near work, school achievement, and children's refractive error","volume":"43","author":"Mutti","year":"2002","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"bib27","first-page":"332","article-title":"Nearwork in early-onset myopia","volume":"43","author":"Saw","year":"2002","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1524","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.14-15549","article-title":"Risk factors for childhood myopia: findings from the NICER study","volume":"56","author":"O'Donoghue","year":"2015","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"13","key":"bib29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8101","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.15-16577","article-title":"Relative contribution of risk factors for early-onset myopia in young Asian children","volume":"56","author":"Chua","year":"2015","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3524","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.06-1118","article-title":"Parental history of myopia, sports and outdoor activities, and future myopia","volume":"48","author":"Jones","year":"2007","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"11","key":"bib31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"7169","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.11-8336","article-title":"Time outdoors, visual activity, and myopia progression in the juvenile-onset myope","volume":"53","author":"Jones-Jordan","year":"2012","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"9","key":"bib32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3858","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.07-1451","article-title":"Myopia and the urban environment: findings in a sample of 12-year-old Australian school children","volume":"49","author":"Ip","year":"2008","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"bib33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.62.5.3","article-title":"IMI risk factors for myopia","volume":"62","author":"Morgan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"bib34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"216","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.12657","article-title":"The association between digital screen time and myopia: a systematic review","volume":"40","author":"Lanca","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"issue":"12","key":"bib35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e806","DOI":"10.1016\/S2589-7500(21)00135-7","article-title":"Association between digital smart device use and myopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis","volume":"3","author":"Foreman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Lancet Digit Health"},{"issue":"12","key":"bib36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1681","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2021.06.016","article-title":"Smartphone use associated with refractive error in teenagers: the Myopia App Study","volume":"128","author":"Enthoven","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"505","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.13116","article-title":"The association between time spent on screens and reading with myopia, premyopia and ocular biometric and anthropometric measures in 6- to 7-year-old schoolchildren in Ireland","volume":"43","author":"Harrington","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiolog Opt"},{"issue":"12","key":"bib38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1772","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2021-319307","article-title":"Myopia incidence and lifestyle changes among school children during the COVID-19 pandemic: a population-based prospective study","volume":"106","author":"Zhang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"1","key":"bib39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10840","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-28904-x","article-title":"Reading and myopia: contrast polarity matters","volume":"8","author":"Aleman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"1","key":"bib40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1","DOI":"10.1177\/112067219500500101","article-title":"Myopia and stature: findings in a population of 106,926 males","volume":"5","author":"Rosner","year":"1995","journal-title":"Eur J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1691","DOI":"10.1002\/oby.23482","article-title":"Myopia and BMI: a nationwide study of 1.3 million adolescents","volume":"30","author":"Peled","year":"2022","journal-title":"Obesity"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"e0265317","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0265317","article-title":"Obesity and high myopia in children and adolescents: Korea National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey","volume":"17","author":"Lee","year":"2022","journal-title":"PLoS One"},{"issue":"2","key":"bib43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"243","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2017-310292","article-title":"Environmental factors explain socioeconomic prevalence differences in myopia in 6-year-old children","volume":"102","author":"Tideman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"11","key":"bib44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"zsad162","DOI":"10.1093\/sleep\/zsad162","article-title":"Myopia and sleep in children-a systematic review","volume":"46","author":"Liu","year":"2023","journal-title":"Sleep"},{"issue":"47","key":"bib45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"70674","DOI":"10.1007\/s11356-022-22764-9","article-title":"Effects of air pollution on myopia: an update on clinical evidence and biological mechanisms","volume":"29","author":"Yuan","year":"2022","journal-title":"Environ Sci Pollut Res Int"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"561","DOI":"10.1016\/j.survophthal.2010.07.003","article-title":"The heritability of ocular traits","volume":"55","author":"Sanfilippo","year":"2010","journal-title":"Surv Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"4","key":"bib47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"401","DOI":"10.1038\/s41588-020-0599-0","article-title":"Meta-analysis of 542,934 subjects of European ancestry identifies new genes and mechanisms predisposing to refractive error and myopia","volume":"52","author":"Hysi","year":"2020","journal-title":"Nat Genet"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib48","first-page":"1225","article-title":"Light processing and regulators are important mechanisms in refractive error","volume":"58","author":"Tedja","year":"2017","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"10","key":"bib49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"16","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.62.10.16","article-title":"Phenotypic consequences of the GJD2 risk genotype in myopia development","volume":"62","author":"Haarman","year":"2021","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"25853","DOI":"10.1038\/srep25853","article-title":"Childhood gene-environment interactions and age-dependent effects of genetic variants associated with refractive error and myopia: the CREAM Consortium","volume":"6","author":"Fan","year":"2016","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"7","key":"bib51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"101085","DOI":"10.1016\/j.xcrm.2023.101085","article-title":"Integrating genetics and metabolomics from multi-ethnic and multi-fluid data reveals putative mechanisms for age-related macular degeneration","volume":"4","author":"Han","year":"2023","journal-title":"Cell Rep Med"},{"key":"bib52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"199","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2020.05.026","article-title":"Independent influence of parental myopia on childhood myopia in a dose-related manner in 2,055 trios: the Hong Kong Children Eye Study","volume":"218","author":"Tang","year":"2020","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"9","key":"bib53","first-page":"1936","article-title":"Ocular predictors of the onset of juvenile myopia","volume":"40","author":"Zadnik","year":"1999","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib54","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"301","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.13603","article-title":"Axial length growth and the risk of developing myopia in European children","volume":"96","author":"Tideman","year":"2018","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmol"},{"key":"bib55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"104551","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ebiom.2023.104551","article-title":"A new polygenic score for refractive error improves detection of children at risk of high myopia but not the prediction of those at risk of myopic macular degeneration","volume":"91","author":"Clark","year":"2023","journal-title":"EBioMedicine"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"890","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2022.03.022","article-title":"The potential of current polygenic risk scores to predict high myopia and myopic macular degeneration in multiethnic Singapore adults","volume":"129","author":"Kassam","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"1","key":"bib57","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"280","DOI":"10.1038\/s43856-024-00718-1","article-title":"Exome-wide genetic risk score (ExGRS) to predict high myopia across multi-ancestry populations","volume":"4","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Commun Med (Lond)"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"26","DOI":"10.1167\/tvst.10.8.26","article-title":"New polygenic risk score to predict high myopia in Singapore Chinese children","volume":"10","author":"Lanca","year":"2021","journal-title":"Transl Vis Sci Technol"},{"issue":"7","key":"bib59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1619","DOI":"10.3390\/biomedicines12071619","article-title":"Developing a polygenic risk score with age and sex to identify high-risk myopia in Taiwan","volume":"12","author":"Lin","year":"2024","journal-title":"Biomedicines"},{"issue":"1","key":"bib60","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"10","DOI":"10.1038\/s41746-023-00752-8","article-title":"Deep learning system to predict the 5-year risk of high myopia using fundus imaging in children","volume":"6","author":"Foo","year":"2023","journal-title":"NPJ Digit Med"},{"issue":"5","key":"bib61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"921","DOI":"10.1038\/s41433-021-01805-6","article-title":"Myopia prediction: a systematic review","volume":"36","author":"Han","year":"2022","journal-title":"Eye"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"622","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2012.06.004","article-title":"The complex interactions of retinal, optical and environmental factors in myopia aetiology","volume":"31","author":"Flitcroft","year":"2012","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"issue":"4","key":"bib63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"49","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.61.4.49","article-title":"The complications of myopia: a review and meta-analysis","volume":"61","author":"Haarman","year":"2020","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"12","key":"bib64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1355","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2016.4009","article-title":"Association of axial length with risk of uncorrectable visual impairment for Europeans with myopia","volume":"134","author":"Tideman","year":"2016","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"29","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.65.3.29","article-title":"Prevalence of myopic maculopathy among the very old: the Ural Very Old Study","volume":"65","author":"Bikbov","year":"2024","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"820","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2020-316234","article-title":"Myopia progression from wearing first glasses to adult age: the DREAM Study","volume":"106","author":"Polling","year":"2022","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.64.6.3","article-title":"IMI-management and investigation of high myopia in infants and young children","volume":"64","author":"Flitcroft","year":"2023","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"19","key":"bib68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"3290","DOI":"10.1093\/hmg\/ddac113","article-title":"Whole exome sequencing of known eye genes reveals genetic causes for high myopia","volume":"31","author":"Haarman","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum Mol Genet"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"380","DOI":"10.1002\/humu.24327","article-title":"Early onset X-linked female limited high myopia in three multigenerational families caused by novel mutations in the ARR3 gene","volume":"43","author":"van Mazijk","year":"2022","journal-title":"Hum Mutat"},{"issue":"10","key":"bib70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1545","DOI":"10.1136\/bjo-2022-321511","article-title":"Genetic and clinical landscape of ARR3-associated MYP26: the most common cause of Mendelian early-onset high myopia with a unique inheritance","volume":"107","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"1","key":"bib71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6703","DOI":"10.1038\/s41467-024-50580-x","article-title":"Exome-wide association study identifies KDELR3 mutations in extreme myopia","volume":"15","author":"Yuan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Nat Commun"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"494","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.13115","article-title":"Myopia control in Mendelian forms of myopia","volume":"43","author":"van der","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"issue":"10","key":"bib73","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1712","DOI":"10.18240\/ijo.2023.10.22","article-title":"Axial length shortening in myopic children with Stickler syndrome after repeated low-level red-light therapy","volume":"16","author":"Tang","year":"2023","journal-title":"Int J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"11","key":"bib74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1462","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2020.01.054","article-title":"Increased time outdoors is followed by reversal of the long-term trend to reduced visual acuity in Taiwan primary school students","volume":"127","author":"Wu","year":"2020","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"2","key":"bib75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"181","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2021.08.013","article-title":"Prevalence trend of myopia after promoting eye care in preschoolers: a serial survey in Taiwan before and during the coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic","volume":"129","author":"Yang","year":"2022","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib76","first-page":"CD013549","article-title":"Interventions to increase time spent outdoors for preventing incidence and progression of myopia in children","volume":"6","author":"Kido","year":"2024","journal-title":"Cochrane Database Syst Rev"},{"issue":"11","key":"bib77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1142","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2015.10803","article-title":"Effect of time spent outdoors at school on the development of myopia among children in China: a randomized clinical trial","volume":"314","author":"He","year":"2015","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1239","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2017.12.011","article-title":"Myopia prevention and outdoor light intensity in a school-based cluster randomized trial","volume":"125","author":"Wu","year":"2018","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"key":"bib79","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"73","DOI":"10.1186\/s12886-015-0052-9","article-title":"Effect of outdoor activity on myopia onset and progression in school-aged children in northeast China: the Sujiatun Eye Care Study","volume":"15","author":"Jin","year":"2015","journal-title":"BMC Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"2","key":"bib80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"63","DOI":"10.11622\/smedj.2019144","article-title":"School-based programme to address childhood myopia in Singapore","volume":"62","author":"Karuppiah","year":"2021","journal-title":"Singapore Med J"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"543","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000002046","article-title":"Outdoor scene classrooms to arrest myopia: design and baseline characteristics","volume":"100","author":"Yi","year":"2023","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"issue":"11","key":"bib82","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1652","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ophtha.2021.04.001","article-title":"COVID-19 quarantine reveals that behavioral changes have an effect on myopia progression","volume":"128","author":"Xu","year":"2021","journal-title":"Ophthalmology"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"293","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2020.6239","article-title":"Progression of myopia in school-aged children after COVID-19 home confinement","volume":"139","author":"Wang","year":"2021","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"4","key":"bib84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"333","DOI":"10.1001\/jamaophthalmol.2022.6506","article-title":"Evaluation and follow-up of myopia prevalence among school-aged children subsequent to the COVID-19 home confinement in Feicheng, China","volume":"141","author":"Wang","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"472","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.2022.24162","article-title":"Effect of low-concentration atropine eyedrops vs placebo on myopia incidence in children: the LAMP2 Randomized Clinical Trial","volume":"329","author":"Yam","year":"2023","journal-title":"JAMA"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"315","DOI":"10.1007\/s10384-021-00822-y","article-title":"Efficacy and safety of 0.01% atropine for prevention of childhood myopia in a 2-year randomized placebo-controlled study","volume":"65","author":"Hieda","year":"2021","journal-title":"Jpn J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"6279","key":"bib87","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1847","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.282.6279.1847","article-title":"Strategy of prevention: lessons from cardiovascular disease","volume":"282","author":"Rose","year":"1981","journal-title":"Br Med J (Clin Res Ed)"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"M106","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.18-25958","article-title":"IMI - Interventions Myopia Institute: interventions for controlling myopia onset and progression report","volume":"60","author":"Wildsoet","year":"2019","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"463","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001367","article-title":"Myopia control: why each diopter matters","volume":"96","author":"Bullimore","year":"2019","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"issue":"2","key":"bib90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"167","DOI":"10.1136\/bjophthalmol-2021-319431","article-title":"Normative data and percentile curves for axial length and axial length\/corneal curvature in Chinese children and adolescents aged 4\u201318 years","volume":"107","author":"He","year":"2023","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib91","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000002176","article-title":"Influence of age and race on axial elongation in myopic children: a systemic review and meta-regression","volume":"101","year":"2024","journal-title":"Optum Vis Sci"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"556","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000001410","article-title":"A 3-year randomized clinical trial of MiSight lenses for myopia control","volume":"96","author":"Chamberlain","year":"2019","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"497","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000002176","article-title":"Influence of age and race on axial elongation in myopic children: a systematic review and meta-regression","volume":"101","author":"Brennan","year":"2024","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"issue":"5","key":"bib94","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"1160","DOI":"10.1111\/opo.13159","article-title":"Normative data for axial elongation in Asian children","volume":"43","author":"Naduvilath","year":"2023","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Physiol Opt"},{"issue":"5","key":"bib95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"877\u2013883 e877","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajo.2015.01.022","article-title":"International photographic classification and grading system for myopic maculopathy","volume":"159","author":"Ohno-Matsui","year":"2015","journal-title":"Am J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.64.6.4","article-title":"IMI - The dynamic choroid: new insights, challenges, and potential significance for human myopia","volume":"64","author":"Ostrin","year":"2023","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"4782536","DOI":"10.1155\/2019\/4782536","article-title":"Short-term effect of low-dose atropine and hyperopic defocus on choroidal thickness and axial length in young myopic adults","volume":"2019","author":"Sander","year":"2019","journal-title":"J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"1","key":"bib98","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"8200","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-018-26635-7","article-title":"Daily morning light therapy is associated with an increase in choroidal thickness in healthy young adults","volume":"8","author":"Read","year":"2018","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"key":"bib99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"156","DOI":"10.1016\/j.preteyeres.2015.12.001","article-title":"Updates of pathologic myopia","volume":"52","author":"Ohno-Matsui","year":"2016","journal-title":"Prog Retin Eye Res"},{"issue":"3","key":"bib100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"330","DOI":"10.1097\/OPX.0000000000000160","article-title":"Light exposure and physical activity in myopic and emmetropic children","volume":"91","author":"Read","year":"2014","journal-title":"Optom Vis Sci"},{"issue":"11","key":"bib101","first-page":"1542","article-title":"Objectively measured near work, outdoor exposure and myopia in children","volume":"104","author":"Wen","year":"2020","journal-title":"Br J Ophthalmol"},{"issue":"1","key":"bib102","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"6901","DOI":"10.1038\/s41598-019-43408-y","article-title":"Continuous objective assessment of near work","volume":"9","author":"Williams","year":"2019","journal-title":"Sci Rep"},{"issue":"6","key":"bib103","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"2","DOI":"10.1167\/iovs.64.6.2","article-title":"IMI-onset and progression of myopia in young adults","volume":"64","author":"Bullimore","year":"2023","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","first-page":"730","DOI":"10.1111\/aos.12387","article-title":"The progression of myopia from its onset at age 8\u201312 to adulthood and the influence of heredity and external factors on myopic progression. A 23-year follow-up study","volume":"92","author":"Parssinen","year":"2014","journal-title":"Acta Ophthalmologica"},{"issue":"8","key":"bib105","first-page":"2330","article-title":"High myopia prevalence as a function of myopia prevalence and age","volume":"62","author":"Brennan","year":"2021","journal-title":"Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci"},{"key":"bib3","first-page":"1168","article-title":"Changes of the ocular refraction among freshmen in National Taiwan University between 1988 and 2005","volume-title":"Eye (Lond)","author":"Wang","year":"2009"},{"key":"bib25","volume-title":"Incidence and distribution of refractive anomalies","author":"Zadnik","year":"1998"}],"container-title":["Investigative Ophthalmology &amp; Visual Science"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/iovs.arvojournals.org\/article.aspx?articleid=2803081","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T21:32:04Z","timestamp":1791927124000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/iovs.arvojournals.org\/article.aspx?articleid=2803081"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]},"references-count":105,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]}},"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1167\/iovs.66.7.4","relation":{},"ISSN":["1552-5783"],"issn-type":[{"value":"1552-5783","type":"print"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,6,5]]}}}