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However, their role within the inflamed lungs is incompletely understood. Here, we collected bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluids and parallel blood samples of critically ill COVID-19 patients requiring invasive mechanical ventilation and compared BAL fluid parameters with those of mechanically ventilated patients with influenza, as a non\u2013COVID-19 viral pneumonia cohort. Compared with those of patients with influenza, BAL fluids of patients with COVID-19 contained increased numbers of hyperactivated degranulating neutrophils and elevated concentrations of the cytokines IL-1\n                    <jats:bold>\u03b2<\/jats:bold>\n                    , IL-1RA, IL-17A, TNF-\n                    <jats:bold>\u03b1<\/jats:bold>\n                    , and G-CSF; the chemokines CCL7, CXCL1, CXCL8, CXCL11, and CXCL12\n                    <jats:bold>\u03b1<\/jats:bold>\n                    ; and the protease inhibitors elafin, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor, and tissue inhibitor of metalloproteinases 1. In contrast,\n                    <jats:bold>\u03b1<\/jats:bold>\n                    -1 antitrypsin levels and net proteolytic activity were comparable in COVID-19 and influenza BAL fluids. During antibiotic treatment for bacterial coinfections, increased BAL fluid levels of several activating and chemotactic factors for monocytes, lymphocytes, and NK cells were detected in patients with COVID-19 whereas concentrations tended to decrease in patients with influenza, highlighting the persistent immunological response to coinfections in COVID-19. Finally, the high proteolytic activity in COVID-19 lungs suggests considering protease inhibitors as a treatment option.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1172\/jci.insight.155055","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,11,18]],"date-time":"2021-11-18T12:13:15Z","timestamp":1637237595000},"source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":56,"title":["Atypical response to bacterial coinfection and persistent neutrophilic bronchoalveolar inflammation distinguish critical COVID-19 from influenza"],"prefix":"10.1172","volume":"7","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-9996-1511","authenticated-orcid":true,"given":"Seppe","family":"Cambier","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Laboratory of Molecular Immunology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, Leuven, 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