{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,8]],"date-time":"2026-10-08T12:05:37Z","timestamp":1791461137894,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":140,"publisher":"American Psychiatric Association Publishing","issue":"2","content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["AJP"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,2,1]]},"DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.156.2.169","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2022,7,29]],"date-time":"2022-07-29T12:17:10Z","timestamp":1659097030000},"page":"169-180","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":165,"title":["Sympathoadrenal Hyperactivity and the Etiology of Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome"],"prefix":"10.1176","volume":"156","author":[{"given":"Ronald J.","family":"Gurrera","sequence":"first","affiliation":[],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"230","reference":[{"key":"R15602CEBCDBAI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mann SC, Caroff SN, Lazarus A: Pathogenesis of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Psychiatr Annals 1991; 21:175\u2013180","DOI":"10.3928\/0048-5713-19910301-10"},{"key":"R15602CEBDJCIF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Greenberg LB, Gujavarty K: The neuroleptic malignant syndrome: review and report of three cases. Compr Psychiatry 1985; 26:63\u201370","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-440X(85)90050-1"},{"key":"R15602CEBDFHDB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Caroff SN, Mann SC: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Med Clin North Am 1993; 77:185\u2013202","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-7125(16)30278-4"},{"key":"R15602CEBCAEJD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fink M: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and catatonia: one entity or two? Biol Psychiatry 1996; 39:1\u20134","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(95)00552-8"},{"key":"R15602CEBBGBDJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tollefson G: A case of neuroleptic malignant syndrome: in vitro muscle comparison with malignant hyperthermia. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982; 2:266\u2013270","DOI":"10.1097\/00004714-198208000-00006"},{"key":"R15602CEBCEEIA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miyatake R, Iwahashi K, Matsushita M, Nakamura K, Suwaki H: No association between the neuroleptic malignant syndrome and mutations in the RYR1 gene associated with malignant hyperthermia. J Neurol Sci 1996; 143:161\u2013165","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-510X(96)00015-9"},{"key":"R15602CHDCIBGD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shalev A, Hermesh H, Munitz H: Mortality from neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1989; 50:18\u201325","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(89)90275-8"},{"key":"atypb1","unstructured":"Sakkas P, Davis JM, Janicak PG, Wang Z: Drug treatment of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Psychopharmacol Bull 1991; 27:381\u2013384"},{"key":"R15602CHDBGGBI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosebush PI, Stewart T, Mazurek MF: The treatment of neuro\u00adleptic malignant syndrome. Br J Psychiatry 1991; 159:709\u2013712","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.159.5.709"},{"key":"R15602CHDECGAH","unstructured":"Gurrera RJ, Chang SS, Romero JA: A comparison of diagnostic criteria for neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1992; 53:56\u201362"},{"key":"R15602CHDBCJAJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adityanjee, Singh S, Singh G, Ong S: Spectrum concept of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Br J Psychiatry 1988; 153:107\u2013111","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.153.1.107"},{"key":"R15602CHDBHIDC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Feibel JH, Schiffer RB: Sympathoadrenomedullary hyperactivity in the neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a case report. Am J Psychiatry 1981; 138:1115\u20131116","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.138.8.1115"},{"key":"atypb2","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hashimoto F, Sherman CB, Jeffery WH: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and dopaminergic blockade. Arch Intern Med 1984; 144:629\u2013630","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.144.3.629"},{"key":"R15602CHDCDEAC","unstructured":"Ansseau M, Reynolds CF III, Kupfer DJ, Poncelet P-F, Franck G, Dresse AE, Reznik M: Central dopaminergic and noradrenergic receptor blockade in a patient with neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1986; 47:320\u2013321"},{"key":"R15602CHDCEEEG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gurrera R, Romero J: Sympathoadrenomedullary activity in neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Biol Psychiatry 1992; 32:334\u2013343","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(92)90037-Z"},{"key":"R15602CHDBDBFI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Swann AC, Secunda SK, Koslow SH, Katz MM, Bowden CL, Maas JW, Davis JM, Robins E: Mania: sympathoadrenal function and clinical state. Psychiatry Res 1991; 37:195\u2013205","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(91)90075-Z"},{"key":"R15602CHDDHJAG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Takahashi A, Ikarashi Y, Ishimaru H, Maruyama Y: Compensation between sympathetic nerves and adrenal medullary activity: effects of adrenodemedullation and chemical sympathec\u00adtomy on catecholamine turnover. Life Sci 1993; 53:1567\u20131572","DOI":"10.1016\/0024-3205(93)90565-K"},{"key":"R15602CHDCADBF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kiernan JA: Vascular permeability in the peripheral autonomic and somatic nervous systems: controversial aspects and comparisons with the blood-brain barrier. Microsc Res Tech 1996; 35:122\u2013136","DOI":"10.1002\/(SICI)1097-0029(19961001)35:2<122::AID-JEMT3>3.3.CO;2-Y"},{"key":"R15602CHDBBEFI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hori T: An update on thermosensitive neurons in the brain: from cellular biology to thermal and non-thermal homeostatic functions. Jpn J Physiol 1991; 41:1\u201322","DOI":"10.2170\/jjphysiol.41.1"},{"key":"R15602CHDDJCCB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Himms-Hagen J: Thermogenesis in brown adipose tissue as an energy buffer: implications for obesity. N Engl J Med 1984; 311:1549\u20131558","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198412133112407"},{"key":"R15602CHDBGEFD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Korpelainen JT, Tolonen U, Sotaniemi KA, Myllyla VV: Suppressed sympathetic skin response in brain infarction. Stroke 1993; 24:1389\u20131392","DOI":"10.1161\/01.STR.24.9.1389"},{"key":"R15602CHDCJAFC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Silver JR, Randall WC, Guttmann L: Spinal mediation of thermally induced sweating. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1991; 54:297\u2013304","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.54.4.297"},{"key":"R15602CHDCDDEA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yoshimatsu H, Egawa M, Bray GA: Sympathetic nerve activity after discrete hypothalamic injections of L-glutamate. Brain Res 1993; 601:121\u2013128","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-8993(93)91702-T"},{"key":"R15602CHDDBAFJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cechetto DF, Saper CB: Neurochemical organization of the hypothalamic projection to the spinal cord in the rat. J Comp Neurol 1988; 272:579\u2013604","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.902720410"},{"key":"R15602CHDBBCGG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lindvall O, Bjorklund A, Skagerberg G: Dopamine-containing neurons in the spinal cord: anatomy and some functional aspects. Ann Neurol 1983; 14:255\u2013260","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410140302"},{"key":"R15602CHDDJCCC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jansen ASP, Nguyen XV, Karpitskiy V, Mettenleiter TC, Loewy AD: Central command neurons of the sympathetic nervous system: basis of the fight-or-flight response. Science 1995; 270:644\u2013646","DOI":"10.1126\/science.270.5236.644"},{"key":"R15602CHDCBJCF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Horn E, Lach B, Lapierre Y, Hrdina P: Hypothalamic pathology in the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1988; 145:617\u2013620","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.145.5.617"},{"key":"R15602CHDBIAJB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Morris HH III, McCormick WF, Reinarz JA: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Arch Neurol 1980; 37:462\u2013463","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1980.00500560092019"},{"key":"R15602CHDBGJBB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee S, Merriam A, Kim T-S, Liebling M, Dickson DW, Moore GRW: Cerebellar degeneration in neuroleptic malignant syndrome: neuropathologic findings and review of the literature concerning heat-related nervous system injury. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52:387\u2013391","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.52.3.387"},{"key":"R15602CHDCCJDI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kish SJ, Kleinert R, Minauf M, Gilbert J, Walter GF, Slimovitch C, Maurer E, Rezvani Y, Myers R, Hornykiewicz O: Brain neurotransmitter changes in three patients who had a fatal hyperthermia syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1990; 147:1358\u20131363","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.147.10.1358"},{"key":"R15602CHDDBCAF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sneddon P, McLaren GJ, Kennedy C: Purinergic cotransmission: sympathetic nerves. Semin Neurosci 1996; 8:201\u2013205","DOI":"10.1006\/smns.1996.0026"},{"key":"R15602CHDDCHJG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gonon F, Msghina M, Stjarne L: Kinetics of noradrenaline released by sympathetic nerves. Neuroscience 1993; 56:535\u2013538","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(93)90354-I"},{"key":"R15602CHDDEDBI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Benschop RJ, Rodriguez-Feuerhahn M, Schedlowski M: Catecholamine-induced leukocytosis: early observations, current research, and future directions. Brain Behav Immun 1996; 10:77\u201391","DOI":"10.1006\/brbi.1996.0009"},{"key":"R15602CHDBBCIA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Insel PA: Adrenergic receptors\u2014evolving concepts and clinical implications. N Engl J Med 1996; 334:580\u2013585","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199602293340907"},{"key":"R15602CHDDBJGG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Motulsky HJ, Insel PA: Adrenergic receptors in man: direct identification, physiologic regulation, and clinical alterations. N Engl J Med 1982; 307:18\u201329","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198207013070104"},{"key":"R15602CHDECCJH","unstructured":"Liu Y-L, Toubro S, Astrup A, Stock MJ: Contribution of beta\n                      3\n                      -adrenoceptor activation to ephedrine-induced thermogenesis in humans. Int J Obesity 1995; 19:678\u2013685"},{"key":"R15602CHDDHEID","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pupilli C, Lanzillotti R, Fiorelli G, Selli C, Gomez RA, Carey RM, Serio M, Mannelli M: Dopamine D2 receptor gene expression and binding sites in adrenal medulla and pheochromocytoma. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1994; 79:56\u201361","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem.79.1.8027253"},{"key":"R15602CHDBDFCD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mannelli M, Lazzeri C, Ianni L, Villa G La, Pupilli C, Bellini F, Serio M, Franchi F: Dopamine and sympathoadrenal activity in man. Clin Exp Hypertens 1997; 19:163\u2013179","DOI":"10.3109\/10641969709080813"},{"key":"R15602CHDCFFID","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gibbins IL, Matthew SE, Bridgman N, Morris JL: Sympathetic vasoconstrictor neurons projecting from the guinea-pig superior cervical ganglion to cutaneous or skeletal muscle vascular beds can be distinguished by soma size. Neurosci Lett 1996; 213:197\u2013200","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(96)12885-8"},{"key":"R15602CHDDIJFC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grewe W, Janig W, Kummel H: Effects of hypothalamic thermal stimuli on sympathetic neurones innervating skin and skeletal muscle of the cat hindlimb. J Physiol 1995; 488:139\u2013152","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1995.sp020952"},{"key":"R15602CHDCIGFJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kocsis B, Fedina L, Gyimesi-Pelczer K, Ladocsi T, Pasztor E: Differential sympathetic reactions during cerebral ischemia in cats: the role of desynchronized nerve discharge. J Physiol (Lond) 1993; 469:37\u201350","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1993.sp019803"},{"key":"R15602CHDCEGII","unstructured":"Goldstein DS: The sympathetic nervous system and the \u201cfight-or-flight\u201d response: outmoded ideas? Mol Psychiatry 1996; 1:95\u201397"},{"key":"R15602CHDBFBEI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klingenberg M: Mechanism and evolution of the uncoupling protein of brown adipose tissue. Trends Biochem Sci 1990; 15:108\u2013112","DOI":"10.1016\/0968-0004(90)90194-G"},{"key":"R15602CHDDICFC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rabelo R, Reyes C, Schifman A, Silva JE: A complex retinoic acid response element in the uncoupling protein gene defines a novel role for retinoids in thermogenesis. Endocrinology 1996; 137:3488\u20133496","DOI":"10.1210\/endo.137.8.8754778"},{"key":"R15602CHDBEIID","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Arancibia S, Rage F, Astier H, Tapia-Arancibia L: Neuroendocrine and autonomous mechanisms underlying thermoregulation in cold environment. Neuroendocrinology 1996; 64:257\u2013267","DOI":"10.1159\/000127126"},{"key":"R15602CHDDBDHE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Nagase I, Yoshida T, Kumamoto K, Umekawa T, Sakane N, Nikami H, Kawada T, Saito M: Expression of uncoupling protein in skeletal muscle and white fat of obese mice treated with thermogenic beta\n                      3\n                      -adrenergic agonist. J Clin Invest 1996; 97:2898\u20132904","DOI":"10.1172\/JCI118748"},{"key":"R15602CHDDBDIC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Clausen T, van Hardeveld C, Everts ME: Significance of cation transport in control of energy metabolism and thermogenesis. Physiol Rev 1991; 71:733\u2013774","DOI":"10.1152\/physrev.1991.71.3.733"},{"key":"R15602CHDBBIFJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Satinoff E: Neural organization and evolution of thermal regulation in mammals: several hierarchically arranged integrating systems may have evolved to achieve precise thermoregulation. Science 1978; 201:16\u201322","DOI":"10.1126\/science.351802"},{"key":"R15602CHDBJFCI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bligh J: The central neurology of mammalian thermoregulation. Neuroscience 1979; 4:1213\u20131236","DOI":"10.1016\/0306-4522(79)90153-2"},{"key":"R15602CHDDFAEJ","unstructured":"Boulant JA: Hypothalamic mechanisms in thermoregulation. Fed Proc 1981; 40:2843\u20132850"},{"key":"R15602CHDDEFID","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zeisberger E: Central modulators of thermoregulation. J Basic Clin Physiol Pharmacol 1990; 1:277\u2013289","DOI":"10.1515\/JBCPP.1990.1.1-4.277"},{"key":"R15602CHDCAHGF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burton H: Responses of spinal cord neurons to systematic changes in hindlimb skin temperatures in cats and primates. J Neurophysiol 1975; 38:1060\u20131079","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1975.38.5.1060"},{"key":"R15602CHDBABEE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Moltz H: Fever: causes and consequences. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1993; 17:237\u2013269","DOI":"10.1016\/S0149-7634(05)80009-0"},{"key":"R15602CHDBDABE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurz A, Sessler DI, Schroeder M, Kurz M: Thermoregulatory response thresholds during spinal anesthesia. Anesth Analg 1993; 77:721\u2013726","DOI":"10.1213\/00000539-199310000-00011"},{"key":"R15602CHDCDDFD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Yehuda S, Wurtman RJ: Release of brain dopamine as the probable mechanism for the hypothermic effect of d-amphetamine. Nature 1972; 240:477\u2013478","DOI":"10.1038\/240477a0"},{"key":"R15602CHDDIBCJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Youdim MBH, Yehuda S, Ben-Uriah Y: Iron deficiency-induced circadian rhythm reversal of dopaminergic-mediated behaviors and thermoregulation in rats. Eur J Pharmacol 1981; 74:295\u2013301","DOI":"10.1016\/0014-2999(81)90048-0"},{"key":"R15602CHDCECHA","unstructured":"Verma A, Kulkarni SK: Differential role of dopamine receptor subtypes in thermoregulation and stereotypic behavior in naive and reserpinized rats. Arch Int Pharmacodyn 1993; 324:17\u201332"},{"key":"R15602CHDCEJDI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Spivak B, Weizman A, Wolovick L, Hermesh H, Tyano S, Munitz H: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome during abrupt reduction of neuroleptic treatment. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1990; 81:168\u2013169","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1990.tb06473.x"},{"key":"R15602CHDCAEJI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cape G: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome\u2014a cautionary tale and a surprising outcome. Br J Psychiatry 1994; 164:120\u2013122","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.164.1.120"},{"key":"R15602CHDCBABC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurlan R, Hamill R, Shoulson I: Review: neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Clin Neuropharmacol 1984; 7:109\u2013120","DOI":"10.1097\/00002826-198406000-00001"},{"key":"R15602CHDBGBFA","unstructured":"Noto T, Hashimoto H, Sugae S, Okamoto K, Nakao J, Kamimura H, Nakajima T: Hypothermia caused by antipsychotic drugs in a schizophrenic patient. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48:77\u201378"},{"key":"R15602CHDCDCHH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mills DE, Robertshaw D: Response of plasma prolactin to changes in ambient temperature and humidity in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1981; 52:279\u2013283","DOI":"10.1210\/jcem-52-2-279"},{"key":"R15602CHDDGBDH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kennedy MS, Burks TF: Dopamine receptors in the central thermoregulatory mechanisms of the cat. Neuropharmacology 1974; 13:119\u2013128","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3908(74)90029-X"},{"key":"R15602CHDDFBHA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cairns SP, Dulhunty AF: The effects of beta-adrenoceptor activation on contraction in isolated fast- and slow-twitch skeletal muscle fibers of the rat. Br J Pharmacol 1993; 110:1133\u20131141","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1476-5381.1993.tb13932.x"},{"key":"R15602CHDCABFH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garcia MC, Escamilla-Sanchez J: Positive inotropic effect of adrenaline on potassium contractures in tonic skeletal muscle fibres of the frog. Can J Physiol Pharmacol 1994; 72:1580\u20131585","DOI":"10.1139\/y94-227"},{"key":"R15602CHDBAAAG","unstructured":"Zacharova D, Lipska E, Hencek M, Hochmannova J, Sajter V: Modulation by adrenaline of electrophysiological membrane parameters and contractility in intact and internally perfused single muscle fibers of the crayfish. Gen Physiol Biophys 1993; 12:543\u2013577"},{"key":"R15602CHDBHIDA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Grassi C, Deriu F, Roatta S, Santarelli R, Azzena GB, Passatore M: Sympathetic control of skeletal muscle function: possible co-operation between noradrenaline and neuropeptide Y in rabbit jaw muscles. Neurosci Lett 1996; 212:204\u2013208","DOI":"10.1016\/0304-3940(96)12835-4"},{"key":"R15602CHDCFDHH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fletcher JE, Tripolitis L, Erwin K, Hanson S, Rosenberg H, Conti PA, Beech J: Fatty acids modulate calcium\u2010induced calcium release from skeletal muscle heavy sarcoplasmic reticulum fractions: implications for malignant hyperthermia. Biochem Cell Biol 1990; 68:1195\u20131201","DOI":"10.1139\/o90-177"},{"key":"R15602CHDDDGEE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kowarski D, Shuman H, Somlyo AP, Somlyo AV: Calcium release by noradrenaline from central sarcoplasmic reticulum in rabbit main pulmonary artery smooth muscle. J Physiol (Lond) 1985; 366:153\u2013175","DOI":"10.1113\/jphysiol.1985.sp015790"},{"key":"R15602CHDBFBCD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lorkovic H: Acetylcholine contractures of skeletal muscles: inhibition by chlorpromazine and diltiazem. Neuropharmacology 1995; 34:695\u2013700","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3908(95)00035-5"},{"key":"R15602CHDEBHBA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Kurpad AV, Kulkarni RN, Rodriguez D, Shetty PS: Characteristics of norepinephrine stimulated thermogenesis in undernourished subjects. J Biosci 1992; 17:293\u2013303","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02703155"},{"key":"R15602CHDCGGDJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simon HB: Current concepts: hyperthermia. N Engl J Med 1993; 329:483\u2013487","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199308123290708"},{"key":"R15602CHDECFIH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burdet L, de Muralt B, Schutz Y, Fitting J-W: Thermogenic effect of bronchodilators in patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Thorax 1997; 52:130\u2013135","DOI":"10.1136\/thx.52.2.130"},{"key":"R15602CHDCDIGB","unstructured":"Wheeldon NM, McDevitt DG, Lipworth BJ: Do beta\n                      3\n                      -adrenoceptors mediate metabolic responses to isoprenaline? Q J Med 1993; 86:595\u2013600"},{"key":"R15602CHDCGFFC","unstructured":"Caroff SN: The neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1980; 41:79\u201383"},{"key":"R15602CHDCFCIG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shalev A, Munitz H: The neuroleptic malignant syndrome: agent and host interaction. Acta Psychiatr Scand 1986; 73:337\u2013347","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1600-0447.1986.tb02694.x"},{"key":"R15602CHDBIJBC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Rosebush P, Stewart T: A prospective analysis of 24 episodes of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1989; 146:717\u2013725","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.146.6.717"},{"key":"R15602CHDBJJEG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Addonizio G, Susman VL, Roth SD: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: review and analysis of 115 cases. Biol Psychiatry 1987; 22:1004\u20131020","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(87)90010-2"},{"key":"R15602CHDCCEBG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Levenson JL: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Am J Psychiatry 1985; 142:1137\u20131145","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.142.10.1137"},{"key":"R15602CHDBCDGA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Modestin J, Toffler G, Drescher JP: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: results of a prospective study. Psychiatry Res 1992; 44:251\u2013256","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(92)90028-2"},{"key":"R15602CHDBBGGD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"White DAC, Robins AH: Catatonia: harbinger of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Br J Psychiatry 1991; 158:419\u2013421","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.158.3.419"},{"key":"R15602CHDBDHFI","unstructured":"Taylor MA: Catatonia: a review of a behavioral neurologic syndrome. Neuropsychiatry, Neuropsychology and Behavioral Neurology 1990; 3:48\u201372"},{"key":"R15602CHDCIJEE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Northoff G: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and catatonia: one entity or two? Biol Psychiatry 1996; 40:431\u2013432","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(96)82518-2"},{"key":"R15602CHDEAIAE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Addonizio G, Susman VL, Roth SD: Symptoms of neuroleptic malignant syndrome in 82 consecutive inpatients. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:1587\u20131590","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.143.12.1587"},{"key":"R15602CHDBDHIH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keck PE Jr, Pope HG Jr, Cohen BM, McElroy SL, Nierenberg AA: Risk factors for neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1989; 46:914\u2013918","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1989.01810100056011"},{"key":"R15602CHDBIAFB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Veith RC, Lewis N, Linares OA, Barnes RF, Raskind MA, Villacres EC, Murburg MM, Ashleigh EA, Castillo S, Peskind ER, Pascualy M, Halter JB: Sympathetic nervous system activity in major depression: basal and desipramine-induced alterations in plasma norepinephrine kinetics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1994; 51:411\u2013422","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1994.03950050071008"},{"key":"R15602CHDDJIHJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maas JW, Katz MM, Koslow SH, Swann A, Davis JM, Berman N, Bowden CL, Stokes PE, Landis H: Adrenomedullary function in depressed patients. J Psychiatr Res 1994; 28:357\u2013367","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3956(94)90018-3"},{"key":"R15602CHDEBIJE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Manchip SM, Hurel SJ: Rhabdomyolysis due to mania (letter). Br J Psychiatry 1995; 167:118","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.167.1.118a"},{"key":"R15602CHDCJCGG","unstructured":"Gjessing LR: A review of periodic catatonia. Biol Psychiatry 1974; 8:23\u201345"},{"key":"R15602CHDCACIB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wheeler AH, Ziegler MG, Insel PA, Motulsky HJ: Episodic catatonia, hypertension, and tachycardia: elevated plasma catecholamines. Neurology 1985; 35:1053\u20131055","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.35.7.1053"},{"key":"R15602CHDCCEHE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Velamoor VR, Norman RMG, Caroff SN, Mann SC, Sullivan KA, Antelo RE: Progression of symptoms in neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Nerv Ment Dis 1994; 182:168\u2013173","DOI":"10.1097\/00005053-199403000-00007"},{"key":"R15602CHDDBHDD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zubenko G, Pope HG Jr: Management of a case of neuroleptic malignant syndrome with bromocriptine. Am J Psychiatry 1983; 140:1619\u20131620","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.140.12.1619"},{"key":"R15602CHDBHJHD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Weinberg SE, Twerski RS: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Anesth Analg 1983; 62:848\u2013850","DOI":"10.1213\/00000539-198309000-00014"},{"key":"R15602CHDCHADH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Price DK, Turnbull GJ, Gregory RP, Stevens DG: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome in a case of post-partum psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 1989; 155:849\u2013852","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.155.6.849"},{"key":"R15602CHDBHJBF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Singh SP, Giridhar C, Avasthi A: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome with trifluperidol. Br J Psychiatry 1989; 155:561\u2013563","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.155.4.561"},{"key":"R15602CHDDJADC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Price WA, Giannini AJ: A paradoxical response to chlorpromazine\u2014a possible variant of the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Pharmacol 1983; 23:567\u2013569","DOI":"10.1002\/j.1552-4604.1983.tb01805.x"},{"key":"R15602CHDCDIDF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Guze BH, Baxter LR Jr: Current concepts: neuroleptic malignant syndrome. N Engl J Med 1985; 313:163\u2013166","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198507183130306"},{"key":"R15602CHDEBACI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cryer PE: Physiology and pathophysiology of the human sympathoadrenal neuroendocrine system. N Engl J Med 1980; 303:436\u2013444","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198008213030806"},{"key":"R15602CHDBEFFI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adityanjee PD, Chawla HM: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and psychotic illness. Br J Psychiatry 1989; 155:852\u2013854","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.155.6.852"},{"key":"R15602CHDBHFIB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Santagostino G, Amoretti G, Frattini P, Zerbi F, Cucchi ML, Preda S, Corona GL: Catecholaminergic, neuroendocrine and anxiety responses to acute psychological stress in healthy subjects: influence of alprazolam administration. Neuropsychobiology 1996; 34:36\u201343","DOI":"10.1159\/000119289"},{"key":"R15602CHDBFGED","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Fukuda M, Hata A, Niwa S-I, Hiramatsu K-I, Honda H, Naka\u00adgome K, Iwanami A: Plasma vanillylmandelic acid level as an index of psychological stress response in normal subjects. Psychiatry Res 1996; 63:7\u201316","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(96)02527-9"},{"key":"R15602CHDCICCE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meltzer HY: Neuromuscular dysfunction in schizophrenia. Schizophr Bull 1976; 2:106\u2013135","DOI":"10.1093\/schbul\/2.1.106"},{"key":"R15602CHDBCGHB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Mann SC, Caroff SN, Bleier HR, Welz WKR, Kling MA, Hayashida M: Lethal catatonia. Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:1374\u20131381","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.143.11.1374"},{"key":"R15602CHDBGGGG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wolff SM, Adler RC, Buskirk ER, Thompson RH: A syndrome of periodic hypothalamic discharge. Am J Med 1964; 36:956\u2013967","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(64)90123-8"},{"key":"R15602CHDCCHFF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Armen R, Kanel G, Reynolds T: Phencyclidine-induced malignant hyperthermia causing submassive liver necrosis. Am J Med 1984; 77:167\u2013172","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(84)90455-8"},{"key":"R15602CHDBFFAE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gurrera RJ, Chang SS: Thermoregulatory dysfunction in neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Biol Psychiatry 1996; 39:207\u2013212","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(95)00137-9"},{"key":"R15602CHDDGGJB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Schmidt KD, Chan CW: Thermoregulation and fever in normal persons and in those with spinal cord injuries. Mayo Clin Proc 1992; 67:469\u2013475","DOI":"10.1016\/S0025-6196(12)60394-2"},{"key":"R15602CHDBHCGF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gurrera RJ: Diaphoresis and dehydration during neuroleptic malignant syndrome: preliminary findings. Psychiatry Res 1996; 64:137\u2013145","DOI":"10.1016\/0165-1781(96)02871-5"},{"key":"R15602CHDCBCII","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Chayasirisobhon S, Cullis P, Veeramasuneni RR: Unusual case reports: occurrence of neuroleptic malignant syndrome in a narcoleptic patient. Hosp Community Psychiatry 1983; 34:548\u2013550","DOI":"10.1176\/ps.34.6.548"},{"key":"R15602CHDCJHCD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Henderson VW, Wooten GF: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a pathogenetic role for dopamine receptor blockade? Neurology (NY) 1981; 31:132\u2013137","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.31.2.132"},{"key":"R15602CHDDFDCE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goldwasser HD, Hooper JF, Spears NM: Concomitant treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome and psychosis. Br J Psychiatry 1989; 154:102\u2013104","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.154.1.102"},{"key":"R15602CHDDDFCG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hoffman WH, Chodoroff G, Piggott LR: Haloperidol and thyroid storm. Am J Psychiatry 1978; 135:484\u2013486; correction, 135:762","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.135.4.484"},{"key":"R15602CHDCAGGD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Conlon P: The spectrum concept of neuroleptic toxicity (letter). Am J Psychiatry 1986; 143:811","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.143.6.811a"},{"key":"R15602CHDBGEAF","unstructured":"Dhib\u2010Jalbut S, Hesselbrock R, Mouradian MM, Means ED: Bromocriptine treatment of neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Clin Psychiatry 1987; 48:69\u201373"},{"key":"R15602CHDCEJEB","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Martin DT, Swash M: Muscle pathology in the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. J Neurol 1987; 235:120\u2013121","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00718024"},{"key":"R15602CHDCFCEH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pearlman C, Wheadon D, Epstein S: Creatine kinase elevation after neuroleptic treatment. Am J Psychiatry 1988; 145:1018\u20131019","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.145.8.1018"},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Meltzer HY, Cola PA, Parsa M: Marked elevations of serum creatine kinase activity associated with antipsychotic drug treatment. Neuropsychopharmacology 1996; 15:395\u2013405","DOI":"10.1016\/0893-133X(95)00276-J"},{"key":"R15602CHDCAABC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Scelsa SN, Simpson DM, McQuistion HL, Fineman A, Ault K, Reichler B: Clozapine-induced myotoxicity in patients with chronic psychotic disorders. Neurology 1996; 47:1518\u20131523","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.47.6.1518"},{"key":"R15602CHDECCEF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Popli AP, Konicki PE, Jurjus GJ, Fuller MA, Jaskiw GE: Clozapine and associated diabetes mellitus. J Clin Psychiatry 1997; 58:108\u2013111","DOI":"10.4088\/JCP.v58n0304"},{"key":"R15602CHDDGHEJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Keshavan MS, Stecker J, Kambhampati RK: Creatine kinase elevations with clozapine. Br J Psychiatry 1994; 164:118\u2013120","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.164.1.118"},{"key":"R15602CHDDJHFA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"van Vliet PD, Burchell HB, Titus JL: Focal myocarditis associated with pheochromocytoma. N Engl J Med 1966; 274:1102\u20131108","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM196605192742002"},{"key":"R15602CHDBFCCC","unstructured":"Guthrie RM, Lott JA: Abnormal serum creatine kinase and MB fraction following an amitriptyline overdose. J Fam Pract 1986; 22:554\u2013555"},{"key":"R15602CHDEBHCF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maguire JF, Geha RS, Umetsu DT: Myocardial specific creatine phosphokinase isoenzyme elevation in children with asthma treated with intravenous isoproterenol. J Allergy Clin Immunol 1986; 78:631\u2013636","DOI":"10.1016\/0091-6749(86)90081-3"},{"key":"R15602CHDBAFBD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bhatnagar D, Carey P, Pollard A: Focal myositis and elevated creatine kinase levels in a patient with pheochromocytoma. Postgrad Med J 1986; 62:197\u2013198","DOI":"10.1136\/pgmj.62.725.197"},{"key":"R15602CHDDDIBI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Shemin D, Cohn PS, Zipin SB: Pheochromocytoma presenting as rhabdomyolysis and acute myoglobinuric renal failure. Arch Intern Med 1990; 150:2384\u20132385","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.150.11.2384"},{"key":"R15602CHDCHECJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Newman M, Adityanjee, Jampala C: Atypical neuroleptic malignant syndrome associated with risperidone treatment (letter). Am J Psychiatry 1997; 154:1475","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.154.10.1475"},{"key":"R15602CHDBJBHH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Marsh SJ, Dolson GM: Rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure during high-dose haloperidol therapy. Ren Fail 1995; 17:475\u2013478","DOI":"10.3109\/08860229509037611"},{"key":"R15602CHDEAJIA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gurrera R, Romero J: Enzyme elevations in the neuroleptic malignant syndrome. Biol Psychiatry 1993; 34:634\u2013640","DOI":"10.1016\/0006-3223(93)90156-8"},{"key":"R15602CHDDAEIC","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pappas NJ Jr: Theoretical aspects of enzymes in diagnosis: why do serum enzymes change in hepatic, myocardial, and other diseases? Clin Lab Med 1989; 9:595\u2013626","DOI":"10.1016\/S0272-2712(18)30594-8"},{"key":"R15602CHDCFCGE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wrogemann K, Pena SDJ: Mitochondrial calcium overload: a general mechanism for cell-necrosis in muscle diseases. Lancet 1976; 1:672\u2013674","DOI":"10.1016\/S0140-6736(76)92781-1"},{"key":"R15602CHDEAADE","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bloom S: Catecholamine cardiomyopathy (letter). N Engl J Med 1987; 317:900\u2013901","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM198710013171413"},{"key":"R15602CHDBEBAI","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sandusky GE, Means JR, Todd GC: Comparative cardiovascular toxicity in dogs given inotropic agents by continuous intravenous infusion. Toxicol Pathol 1990; 18:268\u2013278","DOI":"10.1177\/019262339001800205"},{"key":"R15602CHDBEBGF","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Downey GP, Rosenberg M, Caroff S, Beck S, Rosenberg H, Gerber JC, Heiman-Patterson TD, Aronson MD: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: patient with unique clinical and physiologic features. Am J Med 1984; 77:338\u2013340","DOI":"10.1016\/0002-9343(84)90716-2"},{"key":"R15602CHDBDGCD","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Jones EM, Dawson A: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: a case report with post-mortem brain and muscle pathology. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1989; 52:1006\u20131009","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.52.8.1006"},{"key":"R15602CHDCCEHH","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Okamoto S, Ibaraki K, Hayashi S, Saito M: Ventromedial hypothalamus suppresses splenic lymphocyte activity through sympathetic innervation. Brain Res 1996; 739:308\u2013313","DOI":"10.1016\/S0006-8993(96)00840-2"},{"key":"R15602CHDDGCDG","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"de Boer C, Gaete HP: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and diabetic keto-acidosis. Br J Psychiatry 1992; 161:856\u2013858","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.161.6.856"},{"key":"R15602CHDBFGBA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sherman CB, Hashimoto F, Davidson EJ: Gas\u2010producing Esch\u00aderichia coli fasciitis in a patient with the neuroleptic malignant syndrome (letter). JAMA 1983; 250:361","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1983.03340030023017"},{"key":"R15602CHDCAIEA","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Eles GR, Songer JE, DiPette DJ: Neuroleptic malignant syndrome complicated by disseminated intravascular coagulation. Arch Intern Med 1984; 144:1296\u20131297","DOI":"10.1001\/archinte.144.6.1296"},{"key":"R15602CHDCJAGH","unstructured":"Feneyrou B, Alauzen M, Bourgine N, Carabalona P: Colite necrosante due aux neuroleptiques (Necrotizing colitis due to neuroleptics). Gastroenterol Clin Biol 1985; 9:635\u2013636"},{"key":"R15602CHDCGJAJ","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Otani K, Horiuchi M, Kondo T, Kaneko S, Fukushima Y: Is the predisposition to neuroleptic malignant syndrome genetically transmitted? Br J Psychiatry 1991; 158:850\u2013853","DOI":"10.1192\/bjp.158.6.850"}],"container-title":["American Journal of Psychiatry"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"http:\/\/ajp.psychiatryonline.org\/doi\/10.1176\/ajp.156.2.169","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2024,7,24]],"date-time":"2024-07-24T12:14:33Z","timestamp":1721823273000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/psychiatryonline.org\/doi\/10.1176\/ajp.156.2.169"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1999,2,1]]},"references-count":140,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,2,1]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1176\/ajp.156.2.169"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1176\/ajp.156.2.169","relation":{},"ISSN":["0002-953X","1535-7228"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0002-953X","type":"print"},{"value":"1535-7228","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1999,2,1]]}}}