{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,23]],"date-time":"2026-08-23T16:52:28Z","timestamp":1787503948668,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":41,"publisher":"American Psychiatric Association Publishing","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,27]],"date-time":"2025-03-27T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1743033600000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"http:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100016018","name":"Universidad El Bosque","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100016018","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["Psych Res and Clin Practice"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2025,6]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is common in long COVID syndrome; however, the neurobiological mechanisms are unclear. An immune activation response has been associated with COVID\u201019 severity as well as in MDD. We hypothesize that high levels of pro\u2010inflammatory cytokines during SARS\u2010CoV\u20102 infection may be associated with new\u2010onset MDD and severe outcomes such as treatment\u2010resistant depression (TRD) and risk of suicide ideation and behavior (SI\/SB).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A case\u2010control nested to a cohort study was carried out on a total of 678 COVID\u201019 survivors (MDD\u00a0=\u00a0184 vs. non\u2010MDD\u00a0=\u00a0494). A pro\u2010inflammatory panel of serum levels of cytokines (IL\u20101\u03b2, IL\u20104, IL\u20106, IL\u20108, IL\u201013, IL\u201017\u03b1, TNF\u2010\u03b1) was evaluated during COVID\u201019 hospitalization and severe outcomes such as TRD and SI\/SB were assessed in individuals with new onset of MDD after hospital discharge compared to non\u2010MDD COVID\u201019 survivors.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>High levels of pro\u2010inflammatory cytokines during SARS\u2010CoV\u20102 infection were identified in MDD participants compared to non\u2010MDD subgroups during long COVID. These differences were sustained also for TRD and SI\/SB severity outcomes. There is a mild association of high levels of pro\u2010inflammatory cytokines and MDD, TRD, and SI\/SB.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>High levels of pro\u2010inflammatory cytokines during severe or critical COVID\u201019 exposure may explain long COVID associated MDD and thus severe outcomes such as TRD and SI\/SB.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Relevance to clinical practice<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Identifying elevated pro\u2010inflammatory cytokines during COVID\u201019 as a risk factor for MDD and severe outcomes underscores the need for early screening and targeted treatments in long COVID. Monitoring cytokine levels may help clinicians predict and manage TRD and SI\/SB in this population, improving long\u2010term psychiatric outcomes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1176\/appi.prcp.20240112","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,27]],"date-time":"2025-03-27T07:01:20Z","timestamp":1743058880000},"page":"139-149","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Major Depressive Disorder in Long COVID and Exposure to Pro\u2010Inflammatory Cytokines During Infection by SARS\u2010CoV\u20102"],"prefix":"10.1176","volume":"7","author":[{"given":"Hernan F.","family":"Guillen\u2010Burgos","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Vida Universidad Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar Center for Clinical and Translational Research  Barranquilla Colombia"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine Universidad El Bosque Center for Clinical and Translational Research  Bogot\u00e1 Colombia"},{"name":"Department of Psychiatry and Mental Health Pontificia Universidad Javeriana PhD Program in Neuroscience Hospital Universitario San Ignacio  Bogota Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan F.","family":"G\u00e1lvez\u2010Fl\u00f3rez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Vida Universidad Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar Center for Clinical and Translational Research  Barranquilla Colombia"},{"name":"Universidad El Bosque  Bogot\u00e1 Colombia"},{"name":"Zerenia Clinic. Consultation \u2010 Liaison Psychiatric Unit  Bogot\u00e1 Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sergio","family":"Moreno\u2010L\u00f3pez","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Faculty of Medicine Universidad de Los Andes  Bogot\u00e1 Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sabrina","family":"Wong","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit University Health Network  Toronto ON Canada"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology University of Toronto  Toronto ON Canada"},{"name":"Brain and Cognition Discovery Foundation  Toronto ON Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Angela T. H.","family":"Kwan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mood Disorders Psychopharmacology Unit University Health Network  Toronto ON Canada"},{"name":"Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology University of Toronto  Toronto ON Canada"},{"name":"Faculty of Medicine University of Ottawa  Ottawa ON Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mariana","family":"Ramirez\u2010Posada","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Centro de Investigaciones en Ciencias de la Vida Universidad Sim\u00f3n Bol\u00edvar Center for Clinical and Translational Research  Barranquilla Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Juan\u2010Manuel","family":"Anaya","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Coosalud IPS Research and Innovation Center, and Universidad de la Costa  Barranquilla Colombia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Roger 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