{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T20:50:16Z","timestamp":1777668616185,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":61,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,22]],"date-time":"2014-04-22T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1398124800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We investigated whether different virtual keyboard key sizes affected typing force exposures, muscle activity, wrist posture, comfort, and typing productivity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Virtual keyboard use is increasing and the physical exposures associated with virtual keyboard key sizes are not well documented.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Typing forces, forearm\/shoulder muscle activity, wrist posture, subjective comfort, and typing productivity were measured from 21 subjects while they were typing on four different virtual keyboards with square key sizes, which were 13, 16, 19, and 22 mm on each side with 2-mm between-key spacing.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The results showed that virtual keyboard key size had little effect on typing force, forearm muscle activity, and ulnar\/radial deviation. However, the virtual keyboard with the 13-mm keys had a 15% slower typing speed ( p &lt; .0001), slightly higher static (10th percentile) shoulder muscle activity (2% maximum voluntary contractions, p = .01), slightly greater wrist extension in both hands (2\u00b0 to 3\u00b0, p &lt; .01), and the lowest subjective comfort and preference ratings ( p &lt; .1).<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The study findings indicate that virtual keyboards with a key size less than 16 mm may be too small for touch typing given the slower typing speed, higher static shoulder muscle activity, greater wrist extension, and lowest subjective preferences.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Applications:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We evaluated the effects of virtual keyboard key sizes on typing force exposures, muscle activity, comfort, and typing productivity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720814531784","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,23]],"date-time":"2014-04-23T00:44:07Z","timestamp":1398213847000},"page":"1235-1248","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":41,"title":["The Effect of Key Size of Touch Screen Virtual Keyboards on Productivity, Usability, and Typing Biomechanics"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"56","author":[{"given":"Jeong Ho","family":"Kim","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Northern Illinois University, DeKalb"}]},{"given":"Lovenoor","family":"Aulck","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington, Seattle"}]},{"given":"Ornwipa","family":"Thamsuwan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington, Seattle"}]},{"given":"Michael C.","family":"Bartha","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Hewlett-Packard, Houston, Texas"}]},{"given":"Peter W.","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington, Seattle"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,22]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0018720814531784","volume-title":"Human factors engineering of computer workstations","author":"ANSI\/HFES 100-2007","year":"2007"},{"key":"bibr2-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15428119491019230"},{"key":"bibr3-0018720814531784","volume-title":"Muscles alive: Their functions revealed by electromyography","author":"Basmajian J. V.","year":"1985"},{"key":"bibr4-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130701797959"},{"key":"bibr5-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s00421-008-0878-4"},{"key":"bibr6-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130410001724228"},{"key":"bibr7-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00043764-199712000-00008"},{"key":"bibr8-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00028899908984499"},{"key":"bibr9-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-6870(01)00062-X"},{"key":"bibr10-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/1050-6411(95)00014-3"},{"key":"bibr11-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139508925122"},{"key":"bibr12-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193129604001310"},{"key":"bibr13-0018720814531784","unstructured":"International Data Corporation. (2013). IDC forecasts worldwide tablet shipments to surpass portable PC shipments in 2013, total PC shipments in 2015. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.idc.com\/getdoc.jsp?containerId=prUS24129713"},{"key":"bibr14-0018720814531784","author":"International Organization for Standardization","year":"2008","journal-title":"Ergonomics of human-system interaction: Part 410"},{"key":"bibr15-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10209-011-0218-z"},{"key":"bibr16-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF00864227"},{"key":"bibr17-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.clinbiomech.2004.03.003"},{"key":"bibr18-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2004.01.001"},{"key":"bibr19-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1050-6411(02)00031-7"},{"key":"bibr20-0018720814531784","unstructured":"Jones C. (2013). Tablet market forecast to grow almost 5x by 2017. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.forbes.com\/sites\/chuckjones\/2013\/05\/02\/tablet-market-forecast-to-grow-almost-5x-by-2017"},{"key":"bibr21-0018720814531784","first-page":"73","volume":"11","author":"Jonsson B.","year":"1982","journal-title":"Journal of Human Ergology"},{"key":"bibr22-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0003-6870(01)00036-9"},{"key":"bibr23-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0363-5023(98)80007-5"},{"key":"bibr24-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1071181312561240"},{"key":"bibr25-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2012.709542"},{"key":"bibr26-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.20110"},{"key":"bibr27-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2009.02.013"},{"key":"bibr28-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jelekin.2008.03.011"},{"key":"bibr29-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1518701.1518750"},{"key":"bibr30-0018720814531784","volume-title":"Literature review of touch-screen research from 1980 to 1992","author":"Lewis J. R.","year":"1993"},{"key":"bibr31-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/014492999118995"},{"key":"bibr32-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.10067"},{"key":"bibr33-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872096778827288"},{"key":"bibr34-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088502700205"},{"key":"bibr35-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872008X312279"},{"key":"bibr36-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2010.08.001"},{"key":"bibr37-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2009.08.002"},{"key":"bibr38-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720812465005"},{"key":"bibr39-0018720814531784","volume-title":"ADULTDATA: The handbook of adult anthropometric and strength measurement\u2013data for design safety","author":"Peebles L.","year":"1998"},{"key":"bibr40-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720812465005"},{"key":"bibr41-0018720814531784","volume-title":"Anatomical guide for the electromyographer: The limbs and trunk","author":"Perotto A.","year":"1994"},{"key":"bibr42-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872097778940605"},{"key":"bibr43-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/001401399185865"},{"key":"bibr44-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0021-9290(94)90227-5"},{"key":"bibr45-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/jor.1100150315"},{"key":"bibr46-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130802481040"},{"key":"bibr47-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/001401397187793"},{"key":"bibr48-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00043764-199902000-00006"},{"key":"bibr49-0018720814531784","first-page":"117","volume":"20","author":"Schuldt K.","year":"1988","journal-title":"Scandinavian Journal of Rehabilitation Medicine"},{"key":"bibr50-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/107118139704100180"},{"key":"bibr51-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0953-5438(91)90016-U"},{"key":"bibr52-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01449299308924362"},{"key":"bibr53-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/S15327590IJHC1602_03"},{"key":"bibr54-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720811433831"},{"key":"bibr55-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139.2011.592604"},{"key":"bibr56-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872099779610978"},{"key":"bibr57-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ptj\/80.5.485"},{"key":"bibr58-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193129403801015"},{"key":"bibr59-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02110393"},{"key":"bibr60-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jbiomech.2007.09.025"},{"key":"bibr61-0018720814531784","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2114\/ahs.14.287"}],"container-title":["Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0018720814531784","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0018720814531784","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0018720814531784","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T07:50:38Z","timestamp":1777449038000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0018720814531784"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,22]]},"references-count":61,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2014,11]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0018720814531784"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0018720814531784","relation":{},"ISSN":["0018-7208","1547-8181"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0018-7208","type":"print"},{"value":"1547-8181","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2014,4,22]]}}}