{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,21]],"date-time":"2026-03-21T22:05:48Z","timestamp":1774130748469,"version":"3.50.1"},"reference-count":180,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"7","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,2]],"date-time":"2018-07-02T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1530489600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Objective:<\/jats:title><jats:p> This study reports current status of knowledge and challenges associated with the emergency vehicle (police car, fire truck, and ambulance) crashes, with respect to the major contributing risk factors. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Background:<\/jats:title><jats:p> Emergency vehicle crashes are a serious nationwide problem, causing injury and death to emergency responders and citizens. Understanding the underlying causes of these crashes is critical for establishing effective strategies for reducing the occurrence of similar incidents. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method:<\/jats:title><jats:p> We reviewed the broader literature associated with the contributing factors for emergency vehicle crashes: peer-reviewed journal papers; and reports, policies, and manuals published by government agencies, universities, and research institutes. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results:<\/jats:title><jats:p> Major risk factors for emergency vehicle crashes identified in this study were organized into four categories: driver, task, vehicle, and environmental factors. Also, current countermeasures and interventions to mitigate the hazards of emergency vehicle crashes were discussed, and new ideas for future studies were suggested. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion:<\/jats:title><jats:p> Risk factors, control measures, and knowledge gaps relevant to emergency vehicle crashes were presented. Six research concepts are offered for the human factors community to address. Among the topics are emergency vehicle driver risky behavior carryover between emergency response and return from a call, distraction in emergency vehicle driving, in-vehicle driver assistance technologies, vehicle red light running, and pedestrian crash control. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Application:<\/jats:title><jats:p> This information is helpful for emergency vehicle drivers, safety practitioners, public safety agencies, and research communities to mitigate crash risks. It also offers ideas for researchers to advance technologies and strategies to further emergency vehicle safety on the road. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720818786132","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,2]],"date-time":"2018-07-02T18:52:06Z","timestamp":1530557526000},"page":"1048-1072","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":72,"title":["Preventing Emergency Vehicle Crashes: Status and Challenges of Human Factors Issues"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"60","author":[{"given":"Hongwei","family":"Hsiao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health,\rMorgantown, West Virginia"}]},{"given":"Joonho","family":"Chang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Dongguk University, Seoul, South Korea"}]},{"given":"Peter","family":"Simeonov","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health, Morgantown, West Virginia"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,2]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(03)00040-X"},{"key":"bibr2-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198106195300112"},{"key":"bibr3-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Characteristics and contributing factors of emergency vehicle crashes","author":"Abdelwanis N.","year":"2013"},{"key":"bibr4-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1542811959101"},{"key":"bibr5-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Police pursuit: Policies and training","author":"Alpert G. P.","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr6-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2008.10.007"},{"key":"bibr7-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(02)00102-1"},{"key":"bibr8-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1049023X00042941"},{"key":"bibr9-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/1830-06"},{"key":"bibr10-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/1865-04"},{"key":"bibr11-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Engineering countermeasures to reduce red-light-running","author":"Bonneson J. A.","year":"2002"},{"key":"bibr12-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Review and evaluation of enforcement issues and safety statistics related to red-light-running","author":"Bonneson J.","year":"2003"},{"key":"bibr13-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(00)00102-0"},{"key":"bibr14-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15389580701272346"},{"key":"bibr15-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140139508925285"},{"key":"bibr16-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872089403600210"},{"key":"bibr17-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0028103"},{"key":"bibr18-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/2488-07"},{"key":"bibr19-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Intelligent transportation systems benefits, costs, deployment, and lessons learned desk reference: 2011 update","author":"Bunch J.","year":"2011"},{"key":"bibr20-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Seasonal variations in conspicuity of high-visibility garments","author":"Buonarosa M. L.","year":"2007"},{"key":"bibr21-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Relationship between driver crash injury and passenger car weight","author":"Campbell B. J.","year":"1973"},{"key":"bibr22-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/ajplegacy.1911.28.1.64"},{"key":"bibr23-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2009.03.019"},{"key":"bibr24-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1068\/p170623"},{"key":"bibr25-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Administrative policies and procedures","author":"Central California Emergency Medical Services","year":"1983"},{"key":"bibr26-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2006.880638"},{"key":"bibr27-0018720818786132","volume-title":"EMS workforce for the 21st century: A national assessment","author":"Chapman S. A.","year":"2008"},{"key":"bibr28-0018720818786132","first-page":"175","volume":"30","author":"Chin H. C.","year":"1989","journal-title":"Traffic Engineering and Control"},{"key":"bibr29-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(02)00003-9"},{"key":"bibr30-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/88384"},{"key":"bibr31-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2008.12.013"},{"key":"bibr32-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2010.01.001"},{"key":"bibr33-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-4575(94)90023-X"},{"key":"bibr34-0018720818786132","first-page":"175","volume":"8","author":"Custalow C. B.","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prehospital Emergency Care"},{"key":"bibr35-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00063110-200306000-00009"},{"key":"bibr36-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0196-0644(05)81076-5"},{"key":"bibr37-0018720818786132","first-page":"193","volume":"10","author":"Devlin A.","year":"2011","journal-title":"Psychopharmacology"},{"key":"bibr38-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Human factors in traffic safety","author":"Dewar R. E.","year":"2007","edition":"2"},{"key":"bibr39-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.22151"},{"key":"bibr40-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2012.06.003"},{"key":"bibr41-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12144-011-9120-3"},{"key":"bibr42-0018720818786132","first-page":"444","volume":"8","author":"Eckstein M.","year":"2004","journal-title":"Prehospital Emergency Care"},{"key":"bibr43-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-6846-6_2"},{"key":"bibr44-0018720818786132","first-page":"60","volume":"14","author":"Elling R.","year":"1989","journal-title":"Journal of Emergency Medical Services"},{"key":"bibr45-0018720818786132","unstructured":"Elliot D. L., Kuehl K. S. (2007). Effects of sleep deprivation on fire fighters and EMS responders (Final Report to International Association of Fire Chiefs [IAFC]). Portland, OR: Oregon Health & Science University. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.iafc.org\/docs\/default-source\/1safehealthshs\/progssleep_sleepdeprivationreport.pdf?sfvrsn=f9e4da0d_2"},{"key":"bibr46-0018720818786132","unstructured":"Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). (2014). Crime in the United States: Table 74. Full-time law enforcement employee by population group percent male and female. Retrieved from https:\/\/ucr.fbi.gov\/crime-in-the-u.s\/2014\/crime-in-the-u.s.2014\/tables\/table-74"},{"key":"bibr47-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Manual on uniform traffic control devices for streets and highways","author":"Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)","year":"2009"},{"key":"bibr48-0018720818786132","volume-title":"2011 National EMS assessment","author":"Federal Interagency Committee on Emergency Medical Services","year":"2012"},{"key":"bibr49-0018720818786132","first-page":"42","volume":"18","author":"Flesch J.","year":"1986","journal-title":"Emergency"},{"key":"bibr50-0018720818786132","unstructured":"Frank T. (2015). High-speed police chases have killed thousands of innocent bystanders. USA Today. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.usatoday.com\/story\/news\/2015\/07\/30\/police-pursuits-fatal-injuries\/30187827\/"},{"key":"bibr51-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1161\/01.HYP.33.6.1364"},{"key":"bibr52-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Status and issues for idling reduction in the United States: Alternative fuel and advance vehicle technology market trends","author":"Gaines L.","year":"2015"},{"key":"bibr53-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/2149-10"},{"key":"bibr54-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/2030-05"},{"key":"bibr55-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1287\/opre.8.1.112"},{"key":"bibr56-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Analysis of ambulance crash data","author":"Grant C. C.","year":"2011"},{"key":"bibr57-0018720818786132","first-page":"105","volume-title":"Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects","author":"Hamilton V.","year":"1982"},{"key":"bibr58-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(02)00028-3"},{"key":"bibr59-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Vision in vehicles III","author":"Harms L.","year":"1989"},{"key":"bibr60-0018720818786132","volume-title":"U.S. firefighter injuries\u20142015","author":"Haynes H. J. G.","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr61-0018720818786132","volume-title":"U.S. fire department profile\u20142014","author":"Haynes H. J. G.","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr62-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Risk-seeking behaviors and emergency medical service crash risk in rural ambulance drivers","author":"Heyward B.","year":"2009"},{"key":"bibr63-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.biopsych.2009.06.023"},{"key":"bibr64-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872001775900922"},{"key":"bibr65-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2005.09.007"},{"key":"bibr66-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130412331290925"},{"key":"bibr67-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2007.09.004"},{"key":"bibr68-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872006776412135"},{"key":"bibr69-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2015.04.004"},{"key":"bibr70-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-6870(91)90307-4"},{"key":"bibr71-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Motorcycle accident cause factors and identification of countermeasures. Vol. I: Technical report","author":"Hurt H. H.","year":"1981"},{"key":"bibr72-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Best practices for emergency vehicle and roadway operations safety in the emergency services","author":"International Association of Fire Fighters","year":"2010"},{"key":"bibr73-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(97)00048-1"},{"key":"bibr74-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1108\/PIJPSM-03-2015-0030"},{"key":"bibr75-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2012.05.004"},{"key":"bibr76-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10903120190939751"},{"key":"bibr77-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2004.07.005"},{"key":"bibr78-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6918(94)90013-2"},{"key":"bibr79-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2010.04.016"},{"key":"bibr80-0018720818786132","volume-title":"The impact of driver inattention on near-crash\/crash risk: An analysis using the 100-car naturalistic driving study data","author":"Klauer S. G.","year":"2006"},{"key":"bibr81-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0925-7535(99)00027-2"},{"key":"bibr82-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Fire apparatus duty cycle white paper","author":"Lackore J. R.","year":"2004"},{"key":"bibr83-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(99)00018-4"},{"key":"bibr84-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00001648-200211000-00019"},{"key":"bibr85-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2006.07.005"},{"key":"bibr86-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140130010011369"},{"key":"bibr87-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/2035-14"},{"key":"bibr88-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2008.11.009"},{"key":"bibr89-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.psyneuen.2005.03.014"},{"key":"bibr90-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1049023X11006601"},{"key":"bibr91-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1067\/mem.2002.128681"},{"key":"bibr92-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872099779577282"},{"key":"bibr93-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(97)00037-7"},{"key":"bibr94-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198106194800119"},{"key":"bibr95-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1365-2648.2001.01801.x"},{"key":"bibr96-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2011.02.005"},{"key":"bibr97-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0735-6757(99)90186-9"},{"key":"bibr98-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2012.03.003"},{"key":"bibr99-0018720818786132","volume-title":"NFPA 1001, standard for fire fighter professional qualifications","author":"National Fire Protection Association","year":"1976"},{"key":"bibr100-0018720818786132","volume-title":"NFPA 1002, standard for fire apparatus driver\/operator professional qualifications","author":"National Fire Protection Association","year":"1976"},{"key":"bibr101-0018720818786132","volume-title":"NFPA 1500, standard on fire department occupational safety and health program","author":"National Fire Protection Association","year":"1987"},{"key":"bibr102-0018720818786132","volume-title":"NFPA 1915, standard for fire apparatus preventive maintenance program","author":"National Fire Protection Association","year":"2000"},{"key":"bibr103-0018720818786132","volume-title":"NFPA 1500, standard on fire department occupational safety and health program","author":"National Fire Protection Association","year":"2001"},{"key":"bibr104-0018720818786132","volume-title":"NFPA 1901, standard for automotive fire apparatus","author":"National Fire Protection Association","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr105-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Statistics\u2014Firefighting occupations by women and race","author":"National Fire Protection Association","year":"2018"},{"key":"bibr106-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Characteristics of law enforcement officers\u2019 fatalities in motor vehicle crashes","author":"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration","year":"2011"},{"key":"bibr107-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Pedestrians traffic safety facts\u20142015 data","author":"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr108-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Traffic safety facts 2015\u2014A compilation of motor vehicle crash data from the Fatality Analysis Reporting System (FARS) and the General Estimates System","author":"National Highway Traffic Safety Administration","year":"2017"},{"key":"bibr109-0018720818786132","unstructured":"National Law Enforcement Officers Memorial Fund. (2017). Law enforcement facts. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.nleomf.org\/facts\/enforcement\/"},{"key":"bibr110-0018720818786132","unstructured":"National Safety Council. (2016). My car does what? Retrieved from: https:\/\/mycardoeswhat.org"},{"key":"bibr111-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Emergency vehicle safe operations","author":"National Volunteer Fire Council","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr112-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(02)00011-8"},{"key":"bibr113-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-3999(91)90036-N"},{"key":"bibr114-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/1708-04"},{"key":"bibr115-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S1369-8478(02)00012-8"},{"key":"bibr116-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Fire apparatus accidents and lawsuits","author":"Owens J.","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr117-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2010.05.005"},{"key":"bibr118-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2006.06.014"},{"key":"bibr119-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rstb.1990.0091"},{"key":"bibr120-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ajem.2004.02.003"},{"key":"bibr121-0018720818786132","unstructured":"Peterson K., Amandus H., Wassell J. T. (2009). Reducing firefighter vehicle crash fatalities. Fire Engineering, 162(1). Retrieved from http:\/\/www.fireengineering.com\/articles\/print\/volume-162\/issue-6\/features\/reducing-firefighter-vehicle-crash-fatalities.html"},{"key":"bibr122-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1049023X00041029"},{"key":"bibr123-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-947X(1996)122:2(105)"},{"key":"bibr124-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/2514-12"},{"key":"bibr125-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-4375(99)00024-9"},{"key":"bibr126-0018720818786132","volume-title":"NIOSH Hazard Review. Work-related roadway crashes: Challenges and opportunities for prevention","author":"Pratt S. G.","year":"2003"},{"key":"bibr127-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/2055-16"},{"key":"bibr128-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Gap acceptance for vehicles turning left across on-coming traffic: Implications for intersection decision support design","author":"Ragland D. R.","year":"2006"},{"key":"bibr129-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0023002"},{"key":"bibr130-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10903120701536966"},{"key":"bibr131-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/1595-01"},{"key":"bibr132-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(99)00029-9"},{"key":"bibr133-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-4575(94)00068-W"},{"key":"bibr134-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/e666572007-001"},{"key":"bibr135-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/ip.2003.004853"},{"key":"bibr136-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-4575(76)90018-X"},{"key":"bibr137-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Traffic engineering","author":"Roess R. P.","year":"2004","edition":"3"},{"key":"bibr138-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2012.08.004"},{"key":"bibr139-0018720818786132","volume-title":"White paper presented at the Firehouse Expo","author":"Routley J.","year":"2006"},{"key":"bibr140-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.6028\/NBS.SP.480-37"},{"key":"bibr141-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14640747508400522"},{"key":"bibr142-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Attention and situational awareness in first responder operations: Guidance for the design and use of wearable and mobile technologies","author":"Sanquist T. F.","year":"2016"},{"key":"bibr143-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/j.jfas.2016.05.010"},{"key":"bibr144-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1017\/S1049023X00041017"},{"key":"bibr145-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Investigation of emergency vehicle crashes in the state of Michigan","author":"Savolainen P.","year":"2009"},{"key":"bibr146-0018720818786132","volume-title":"The effect of lead-vehicle size on driver following behavior","author":"Sayer J. R.","year":"2000"},{"key":"bibr147-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.16.2.303"},{"key":"bibr148-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(03)00037-X"},{"key":"bibr149-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10903120802706104"},{"key":"bibr150-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Standard SAE J595: Directional flashing optical warning devices for authorized emergency, maintenance, and service vehicles","author":"Society of Automotive Engineers","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr151-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2005.10.001"},{"key":"bibr152-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Highway design handbook for older drivers and pedestrians. Final report","author":"Staplin L.","year":"2001"},{"key":"bibr153-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Volume II: Background synthesis on age and intersection driving difficulties","author":"Staplin L.","year":"1998"},{"key":"bibr154-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2006.09.001"},{"key":"bibr155-0018720818786132","unstructured":"Stull J. O., Stull G. G. (2008). How NFPA 1500 applied to firefighter PPE. Retrieved from http:\/\/www.firerescue1.com\/fire-products\/Personal-protective-equipment-ppe\/articles\/405678-How-NFPA-1500-Applies-to-Firefighter-PPE"},{"key":"bibr156-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/STHF0203_2"},{"key":"bibr157-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0001-4575(98)00005-0"},{"key":"bibr158-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/atr.5670410303"},{"key":"bibr159-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cxo.12447"},{"key":"bibr160-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssci.2011.09.012"},{"key":"bibr161-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Effects of warning lamp color and intensity on driver vision","author":"University of Michigan Transportation Research Institute","year":"2008"},{"key":"bibr162-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Safe operation of fire tankers","author":"U.S. Fire Administration","year":"2002"},{"key":"bibr163-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Emergency vehicle safety initiative","author":"U.S. Fire Administration","year":"2004"},{"key":"bibr164-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Emergency vehicle visibility and conspicuity study","author":"U.S. Fire Administration","year":"2009"},{"key":"bibr165-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Emergency vehicle safety initiative","author":"U.S. Fire Administration","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr166-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Firefighter fatalities in the United States in 2013","author":"U.S. Fire Administration","year":"2014"},{"key":"bibr167-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajim.20333"},{"key":"bibr168-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198106195300102"},{"key":"bibr169-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0003-6870(74)90350-0"},{"key":"bibr170-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1053\/ajem.2001.20001"},{"key":"bibr171-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2011.09.048"},{"key":"bibr172-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/1800-12"},{"key":"bibr173-0018720818786132","unstructured":"Wikipedia. (2017). Emergency vehicles. Retrieved from https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Emergency_vehicle"},{"key":"bibr174-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00063110-199906000-00006"},{"key":"bibr175-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1196\/annals.1410.048"},{"key":"bibr176-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2005.05.001"},{"key":"bibr177-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0361198105190800109"},{"key":"bibr178-0018720818786132","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jsr.2007.01.008"},{"key":"bibr179-0018720818786132","volume-title":"Emergency vehicle operator on-board device distractions","author":"Yager C.","year":"2015"},{"key":"bibr180-0018720818786132","author":"Zegeer C. V.","year":"1978","journal-title":"Institute of Transportation Engineers Journal"}],"container-title":["Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0018720818786132","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0018720818786132","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0018720818786132","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,28]],"date-time":"2025-02-28T19:09:27Z","timestamp":1740769767000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0018720818786132"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,2]]},"references-count":180,"journal-issue":{"issue":"7","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2018,11]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0018720818786132"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0018720818786132","relation":{},"ISSN":["0018-7208","1547-8181"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0018-7208","type":"print"},{"value":"1547-8181","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,7,2]]}}}