{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,30]],"date-time":"2026-06-30T00:20:59Z","timestamp":1782778859669,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":36,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]],"date-time":"2018-08-31T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1535673600000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>A distributed cognitive system is a system in which cognitive processes are distributed between brain-based internal and environment-based external resources. In the current experiment, we examined the influence of metacognitive processes on external resource use (i.e., cognitive offloading) in such systems.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>High-tech working environments oftentimes represent distributed cognitive systems. Because cognitive offloading can both support and harm performance, depending on the specific circumstances, it is essential to understand when and why people offload their cognition.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We used an extension of the mental rotation paradigm. It allowed participants to rotate stimuli either internally as in the original paradigm or with a rotation knob that afforded rotating stimuli externally on a computer screen. Two parameters were manipulated: the knob\u2019s actual reliability (AR) and an instruction altering participants\u2019 beliefs about the knob\u2019s reliability (believed reliability; BR). We measured cognitive offloading proportion and perceived knob utility.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Participants were able to quickly and dynamically adjust their cognitive offloading proportion and subjective utility assessments in response to AR, suggesting a high level of offloading proficiency. However, when BR instructions were presented that falsely described the knob\u2019s reliability to be lower than it actually was, participants reduced cognitive offloading substantially.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The extent to which people offload their cognition is not based solely on utility maximization; it is additionally affected by possibly erroneous preexisting beliefs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Application:<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To support users in efficiently operating in a distributed cognitive system, an external resource\u2019s utility should be made transparent, and preexisting beliefs should be adjusted prior to interaction.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720818797553","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]],"date-time":"2018-08-31T17:47:02Z","timestamp":1535737622000},"page":"243-254","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":44,"title":["Using Tools to Help Us Think: Actual but Also Believed Reliability Modulates Cognitive Offloading"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"61","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4586-1464","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Patrick P.","family":"Weis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Eva","family":"Wiese","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"George Mason University, Fairfax, VA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0044049"},{"key":"bibr2-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bahner J. E., H\u00fcper A.D., Manzey D. (2008). Misuse of automated decision aids: Complacency, automation bias and the impact of training experience. International Journal of Human-Computer Studies, 66(9), 688\u2013699. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2008.06.001","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ijhcs.2008.06.001"},{"key":"bibr3-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03192707"},{"key":"bibr4-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2517-6161.1995.tb02031.x"},{"key":"bibr5-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Brainard D. H. (1997). The psychophysics toolbox. Spatial Vision, 10, 433\u2013436. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1163\/156856897x00357","DOI":"10.1163\/156856897X00357"},{"key":"bibr6-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-1099-4_5"},{"key":"bibr7-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00010694-195008000-00014"},{"key":"bibr8-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03195424"},{"key":"bibr9-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Dunn T. L., Risko E. F. (2016). Toward a metacognitive account of cognitive offloading. Cognitive Science, 40(5), 1080\u20131127. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/cogs.12273","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12273"},{"key":"bibr10-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gilbert S. J. (2015). Strategic use of reminders: Influence of both domain-general and task-specific metacognitive confidence, independent of objective memory ability. Consciousness and Cognition, 33, 245\u2013260. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.concog.2015.01.006","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2015.01.006"},{"key":"bibr11-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray W. D., Fu W.T. (2004). Soft constraints in interactive behavior: the case of ignoring perfect knowledge in-the-world for imperfect knowledge in-the-head. Cognitive Science, 28(3), 359\u2013382. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cogsci.2003.12.001","DOI":"10.1207\/s15516709cog2803_3"},{"key":"bibr12-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray W. D., Sims C. R., Fu W.T., Schoelles M. J. (2006). The soft constraints hypothesis: A rational analysis approach to resource allocation for interactive behavior. Psychological Review, 113(3), 461\u2013482. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0033-295X.113.3.461","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.113.3.461"},{"key":"bibr13-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/353485.353487"},{"key":"bibr14-0018720818797553","volume-title":"Nonparametric statistical methods","author":"Hollander M.","year":"1973"},{"key":"bibr15-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2093548.2093570"},{"key":"bibr16-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Hutchins E. (1995). How a cockpit remembers its speeds. Cognitive Science, 19(3), 265\u2013288. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1207\/s15516709cog1903_1","DOI":"10.1016\/0364-0213(95)90020-9"},{"key":"bibr17-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.126.4.349"},{"key":"bibr18-0018720818797553","first-page":"26","volume-title":"Everyday Memory","author":"Koriat A.","year":"2007","edition":"1"},{"key":"bibr19-0018720818797553","volume-title":"Apparatus Tests","author":"Melton A. W.","year":"1947"},{"key":"bibr20-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jneumeth.2013.10.024"},{"key":"bibr21-0018720818797553","author":"National Transportation Safety Board","year":"1994","journal-title":"Stall and loss of control on final approach"},{"key":"bibr22-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"O\u2019Hara K. P., Payne S. J. (1998). The effects of operator implementation cost on planfulness of problem solving and learning. Cognitive Psychology, 35(1), 34\u201370. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1006\/cogp.1997.0676","DOI":"10.1006\/cogp.1997.0676"},{"key":"bibr23-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/1082-989X.8.4.434"},{"key":"bibr24-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Parasuraman R., Manzey D. H. (2010). Complacency and bias in human use of automation: An attentional integration. Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, 52(3), 381\u2013410. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0018720810376055","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720810376055"},{"key":"bibr25-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15327108ijap0301_1"},{"key":"bibr26-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872097778543886"},{"key":"bibr27-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pelli D. G. (1997). The VideoToolbox software for visual psychophysics: Transforming numbers into movies. Spatial Vision, 10(4), 437\u2013442. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1163\/156856897X00366","DOI":"10.1163\/156856897X00366"},{"key":"bibr28-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.concog.2015.05.014"},{"key":"bibr29-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Risko E. F., Gilbert S. J. (2016). Cognitive offloading. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 20(9), 676\u2013688. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.tics.2016.07.002","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tics.2016.07.002"},{"key":"bibr30-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/cogs.12087"},{"key":"bibr31-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.171.3972.701"},{"key":"bibr32-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-3445.126.1.71"},{"key":"bibr33-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Storm B. C., Stone S. M. (2015). Saving-Enhanced Memory The benefits of saving on the learning and remembering of new information. Psychological Science, 26(2), 182\u2013188. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0956797614559285","DOI":"10.1177\/0956797614559285"},{"key":"bibr34-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cogpsych.2008.09.003"},{"key":"bibr35-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ward A. F., Duke K., Gneezy A., Bos M. W. (2017). Brain drain: The mere presence of one\u2019s own smartphone reduces available cognitive capacity. Journal of the Association for Consumer Research, 2(2), 140\u2013154. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1086\/691462","DOI":"10.1086\/691462"},{"key":"bibr36-0018720818797553","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wickens C. D., Dixon S. R. (2007). The benefits of imperfect diagnostic automation: A synthesis of the literature. Theoretical Issues in Ergonomics Science, 8(3), 201\u2013212. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/14639220500370105","DOI":"10.1080\/14639220500370105"}],"container-title":["Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0018720818797553","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0018720818797553","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0018720818797553","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T07:51:47Z","timestamp":1777449107000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0018720818797553"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]]},"references-count":36,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,3]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0018720818797553"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0018720818797553","relation":{"has-preprint":[{"id-type":"doi","id":"10.31234\/osf.io\/y79wn","asserted-by":"object"}]},"ISSN":["0018-7208","1547-8181"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0018-7208","type":"print"},{"value":"1547-8181","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2018,8,31]]}}}