{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,1,16]],"date-time":"2026-01-16T03:44:01Z","timestamp":1768535041503,"version":"3.49.0"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,26]],"date-time":"2019-03-26T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1553558400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"name":"the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities and the JRI Seed Grants NYU-ECNU Institute of Brain and Cognitive Science at NYU Shanghai"},{"DOI":"10.13039\/501100001809","name":"national natural science foundation of china","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["No. 31571160"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["No. 31571160"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/501100001809","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"name":"the National Social Science Foundation of China Grants","award":["15ZDB016"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["15ZDB016"]}]},{"name":"The National Key R&D Program of China","award":["2016YFB0401203"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["2016YFB0401203"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec><jats:title>Objective:<\/jats:title><jats:p> The study examines the factors determining the movement time (MT) of positioning an object in an immersive 3D virtual environment. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Background:<\/jats:title><jats:p> Positioning an object into a prescribed area is a fundamental operation in a 3D space. Although Fitts\u2019s law models the pointing task very well, it does not apply to a positioning task in an immersive 3D virtual environment since it does not consider the effect of object size in the positioning task. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method:<\/jats:title><jats:p> Participants were asked to position a ball-shaped object into a spherical area in a virtual space using a handheld or head-tracking controller in the ray-casting technique. We varied object size (OS), movement amplitude (A), and target tolerance (TT). MT was recorded and analyzed in three phases: acceleration, deceleration, and correction. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results:<\/jats:title><jats:p> In the acceleration phase, MT was inversely related to object size and positively proportional to movement amplitude. In the deceleration phase, MT was primarily determined by movement amplitude. In the correction phase, MT was affected by all three factors. We observed similar results whether participants used a handheld controller or head-tracking controller. We thus propose a three-phase model with different formulae at each phase. This model fit participants\u2019 performance very well. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion:<\/jats:title><jats:p> A three-phase model can successfully predict MT in the positioning task in an immersive 3D virtual environment in the acceleration, deceleration, and correction phases, separately. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Application:<\/jats:title><jats:p> Our model provides a quantitative framework for researchers and designers to design and evaluate 3D interfaces for the positioning task in a virtual space. <\/jats:p><\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720819831517","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,26]],"date-time":"2019-03-26T20:24:05Z","timestamp":1553631845000},"page":"879-894","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":27,"title":["Beyond Fitts\u2019s Law: A Three-Phase Model Predicts Movement Time to Position an Object in an Immersive 3D Virtual Environment"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"61","author":[{"given":"Cheng-Long","family":"Deng","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"East China Normal University, Shanghai"}]},{"given":"Peng","family":"Geng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"East China Normal University, Shanghai"}]},{"given":"Yi-Fei","family":"Hu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"East China Normal University, Shanghai"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8566-7338","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shu-Guang","family":"Kuai","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"East China Normal University, Shanghai"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,26]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/642611.642646"},{"key":"bibr2-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0033458"},{"key":"bibr3-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VRAIS.1998.658476"},{"key":"bibr4-0018720819831517","volume-title":"3D User interfaces: theory and practice, CourseSmart eTextbook","author":"Bowman D.","year":"2004"},{"key":"bibr5-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/253284.253301"},{"key":"bibr6-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1006\/jvlc.1998.0111"},{"key":"bibr7-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ergon.2013.05.005"},{"key":"bibr8-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/3DUI.2017.7893337"},{"key":"bibr9-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/THMS.2015.2430872"},{"key":"bibr10-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1559764.1559769"},{"key":"bibr11-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.127.3.342"},{"key":"bibr12-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0055392"},{"key":"bibr13-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0045689"},{"key":"bibr14-0018720819831517","unstructured":"Fr\u00f6jdman S. (2016). User experience guidelines for design of virtual reality graphical user interfaces controlled by head orientation input. (Dissertation). University of Sk\u00f6vde, Sweden. Retrieved from http:\/\/urn.kb.se\/resolve?urn=urn:nbn:se:his:diva-12522"},{"key":"bibr15-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140138808966724"},{"key":"bibr16-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2984511.2984576"},{"key":"bibr17-0018720819831517","unstructured":"Hannema D. (2001). Interaction in virtual reality. University of Amsterdam, the Netherlands."},{"key":"bibr18-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720817701000"},{"key":"bibr19-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.6.2.309"},{"key":"bibr20-0018720819831517","unstructured":"Jung J., Park H., Hwang D., Son M., Beck D., Park J., Park W. (2014). A review on interaction techniques in virtual environments. Proceedings of the International Conference on Industrial Engineering and Operations Management, 1582\u20131590. Retrieved from http:\/\/ieomsociety.org\/ieom2014\/pdfs\/360.pdf"},{"key":"bibr21-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1117\/12.497665"},{"key":"bibr22-0018720819831517","volume-title":"Human-computer interaction: Interaction techniques and environments. HCI 2011. Lecture notes in computer science","volume":"6762","author":"Lin J.-F.","year":"2011"},{"key":"bibr23-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/VR.2009.4811026"},{"key":"bibr24-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14640748708401806"},{"key":"bibr25-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/142750.142794"},{"key":"bibr26-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/2399016.2399103"},{"key":"bibr27-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.95.3.340"},{"key":"bibr28-0018720819831517","first-page":"173","volume-title":"Attention and performance 13: Motor representation and control","author":"Meyer D. E.","year":"1990"},{"key":"bibr29-0018720819831517","unstructured":"Mine M. (1996). Working in a virtual world: Interaction techniques used in the Chapel Hill immersive modeling program (Technical report). Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina."},{"key":"bibr30-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"33","DOI":"10.1145\/503376.503383","volume-title":"Proceedings of the SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems","author":"Myers B. A.","year":"2002"},{"key":"bibr31-0018720819831517","first-page":"141","author":"Oh J.-Y.","year":"2002","journal-title":"Proceedings of Graphics Interface"},{"key":"bibr32-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120905301506"},{"key":"bibr33-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720810397353"},{"key":"bibr34-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/237091.237102"},{"key":"bibr35-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1467-8659.00252"},{"key":"bibr36-0018720819831517","first-page":"303","volume-title":"Proceedings of the 2012 International Conference on Advances in Computer-Human Interactions","author":"Radkowski R.","year":"2012"},{"key":"bibr37-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00222895.1979.10735186"},{"key":"bibr38-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120805201309"},{"key":"bibr39-0018720819831517","first-page":"325","volume":"2","author":"Stein R. B.","year":"1981","journal-title":"Handbook of Physiology"},{"key":"bibr40-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1980.44.1.40"},{"key":"bibr41-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/332040.332443"},{"key":"bibr42-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/1328202.1328214"},{"key":"bibr43-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-6918(69)90034-1"},{"key":"bibr44-0018720819831517","first-page":"61","author":"Wingrave C.","year":"2005","journal-title":"Proceedings of HCI International"},{"issue":"3","key":"bibr45-0018720819831517","volume":"3","author":"Woodworth R. S.","year":"1899","journal-title":"The Psychological Review: Monograph Supplements"},{"key":"bibr46-0018720819831517","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.14.2.221"}],"container-title":["Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0018720819831517","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/0018720819831517","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/0018720819831517","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2025,3,2]],"date-time":"2025-03-02T07:27:20Z","timestamp":1740900440000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/0018720819831517"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,26]]},"references-count":46,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2019,9]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/0018720819831517"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0018720819831517","relation":{},"ISSN":["0018-7208","1547-8181"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0018-7208","type":"print"},{"value":"1547-8181","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2019,3,26]]}}}