{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,25]],"date-time":"2026-06-25T21:20:34Z","timestamp":1782422434697,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,29]],"date-time":"2020-01-29T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1580256000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"name":"HFAuto - Human Factors of Automated Driving","award":["PITN-GA-2013-605817"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["PITN-GA-2013-605817"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2020,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We investigated a driver monitoring system (DMS) designed to adaptively back up distracted drivers with automated driving.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Humans are likely inadequate for supervising today\u2019s on-road driving automation. Conversely, backup concepts can use eye-tracker DMS to retain the human as the primary driver and use computerized control only if needed. A distraction DMS where perceived false alarms are minimized and the status of the backup is unannounced might reduce problems of distrust and overreliance, respectively. Experimental research is needed to assess the viability of such designs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>In a driving simulator, 91 participants either supervised driving automation ( auto-hand-on-wheel vs. auto-hands-off-wheel), drove with different forms of DMS-induced backup control ( eyes-only-backup vs. eyes-plus-context-backup; visible-backup vs. invisible-backup), or drove without any automation. All participants performed a visual N-back task throughout.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Supervised driving automation increased visual distraction and hazard non-responses compared to backup and conventional driving. Auto-hand-on-wheel improved response generation compared to auto-hands-off-wheel. Across entire driving trials, the backup improved lateral performance compared to conventional driving. Without negatively impacting safety, the eyes-plus-context-backup DMS reduced unnecessary automated control compared to the eyes-only-backup DMS conditions. Eyes-only-backup produced low satisfaction ratings, whereas eyes-plus-context-backup satisfaction was on par with automated driving. There were no appreciable negative consequences attributable to the invisible-backup driving automation.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We have demonstrated preliminary feasibility of DMS designs that incorporate driving context information for distraction assessment and suppress their status indication.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Application<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>An appropriately designed DMS can enable benefits for automated driving as a backup.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720819894757","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,29]],"date-time":"2020-01-29T14:31:32Z","timestamp":1580308292000},"page":"211-228","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["Redesigning Today\u2019s Driving Automation Toward Adaptive Backup Control With Context-Based and Invisible Interfaces"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"62","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1357-0160","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christopher D. D.","family":"Cabrall","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-8445-1014","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jork C. J.","family":"Stapel","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Riender","family":"Happee","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1281-8200","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Joost C. F.","family":"de Winter","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2020,1,29]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0018720819894757","volume-title":"Ten ways autonomous driving could redefine the automotive world","author":"Bertoncello M.","year":"2015"},{"key":"bibr2-0018720819894757","first-page":"32","volume":"2018","author":"Bird G","year":"2018","journal-title":"Vision Zero International"},{"key":"bibr3-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1073\/pnas.97.7.3661"},{"key":"bibr6-0018720819894757","unstructured":"Cabrall C. D. D. (2017). Customizable N-back GUI secondary task. [Computer script]. Zenodo. http:\/\/doi.org\/10.5281\/zenodo.891531"},{"key":"bibr4-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2016.04.001"},{"key":"bibr7-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.7717\/peerj-cs.166"},{"key":"bibr5-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Cabrall C. D. D., Janssen N., Goncalves J., Morando A., Sassman M., de Winter J. (2016).\n                      Eye-based driver state monitor of distraction, drowsiness, and cognitive load for transitions of control in automated driving\n                      [Conference session]. IEEE International Conference on Systems, Man, and Cybernetics, Budapest, Hungary.","DOI":"10.1109\/SMC.2016.7844530"},{"key":"bibr8-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720812460246"},{"key":"bibr9-0018720819894757","first-page":"162","volume":"51","author":"Classen J.","year":"1999","journal-title":"Electroencephalography and Clinical Neurophysiology"},{"key":"bibr10-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1152\/jn.1998.79.2.1117"},{"key":"bibr11-0018720819894757","unstructured":"Cyganski R., Fraedrich E., Lenz B. (2014).\n                      Travel time valuation for automated driving: A use-case driven study\n                      [Paper presentation]. Transportation Research Board 94th Annual Meeting, Paper 15-4259, Washington, DC. https:\/\/elib.dlr.de\/95260\/1\/TRB2015_CYGANSKI_FRAEDRICH_LENZ_15-4259.pdf"},{"key":"bibr12-0018720819894757","unstructured":"Euro NCAP. (2018, October 18). For the first time, Euro NCAP puts automated driving technology to the test. Euro NCAP, Press Releases. https:\/\/www.euroncap.com\/en\/press-media\/press-releases\/testingautomation\/"},{"key":"bibr13-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4271\/2016-01-1424"},{"key":"bibr14-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931213601948"},{"key":"bibr15-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720818761711"},{"key":"bibr16-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720816655240"},{"key":"bibr17-0018720819894757","author":"Hof R","year":"2016","journal-title":"Forbes"},{"key":"bibr18-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trc.2013.02.008"},{"key":"bibr19-0018720819894757","unstructured":"Kircher K., Ahlstr\u00f6m C. (2009).\n                      Issues related to the driver distraction detection algorithm attend\n                      [Conference session]. First International Conference on Driver Distraction and Inattention, Gothenburg, Sweden. http:\/\/www.diva-portal.org\/smash\/get\/diva2:817352\/FULLTEXT01.pdf"},{"key":"bibr20-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720816672756"},{"key":"bibr21-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Klauer S. G., Dingus T. A., Neale V. L., Sudweeks J. D., Ramsey D. J. (2006). The impact of driver inattention on near-crash\/crash risk: An analysis using the 100-car naturalistic driving study data (Tech Rep. No. DOT HS 810 594). National Highway Traffic Safety Administration.","DOI":"10.1037\/e729262011-001"},{"key":"bibr22-0018720819894757","unstructured":"Large D. R., Banks V. A., Burnett G., Baverstock S., Skrypchuk L. (2017).\n                      Exploring the behavior of distracted drivers during different levels of automation in driving\n                      [Conference session]. 5th International Conference on Driver Distraction and Inattention, Paris, France."},{"key":"bibr23-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931214581442"},{"key":"bibr24-0018720819894757","first-page":"174","volume-title":"Selected papers on human factors in the design and use of control systems (1961)","author":"Mackworth N. H","year":"1950"},{"key":"bibr25-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-0-85729-085-4_6"},{"key":"bibr26-0018720819894757","unstructured":"Mehler B., Reimer B., Dusek J. A. (2011).\n                      M\n                      IT\n                      AgeLab delayed digit recall task (N-back)\n                      . Working paper 2011-3B. 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United States National Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA)."},{"key":"bibr31-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/acprof:oso\/9780198521914.003.0014"},{"key":"bibr32-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872097778543886"},{"key":"bibr33-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720814563602"},{"key":"bibr34-0018720819894757","author":"Rader R.","year":"2019","journal-title":"Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS)"},{"key":"bibr35-0018720819894757","volume-title":"Driver distraction: Theory, effects, and mitigation","author":"Regan M. A.","year":"2009"},{"key":"bibr36-0018720819894757","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12239-013-0029-8"},{"key":"bibr37-0018720819894757","unstructured":"SAE. (2018).\n                      Taxonomy and definitions for terms related to driving automation systems for on-road motor vehicles\n                      . 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