{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,6]],"date-time":"2026-05-06T04:51:05Z","timestamp":1778043065386,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":77,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"5","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]],"date-time":"2021-04-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1619568000000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"name":"Sweden\u2019s Innovation Agency","award":["Grant 2019-05834"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Grant 2019-05834"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The aim of this review is to identify how visual occlusion contributes to our understanding of attentional demand and spare visual capacity in driving and the strengths and limitations of the method.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The occlusion technique was developed by John W. Senders to evaluate the attentional demand of driving. Despite its utility, it has been used infrequently in driver attention\/inattention research.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Visual occlusion studies in driving published between 1967 and 2020 were reviewed. The focus was on original studies in which the forward visual field was intermittently occluded while the participant was driving.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Occlusion studies have shown that attentional demand varies across situations and drivers and have indicated environmental, situational, and inter-individual factors behind the variability. The occlusion technique complements eye tracking in being able to indicate the temporal requirements for and redundancy in visual information sampling. The proper selection of occlusion settings depends on the target of the research.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Although there are a number of occlusion studies looking at various aspects of attentional demand, we are still only beginning to understand how these demands vary, interact, and covary in naturalistic driving.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Application<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The findings of this review have methodological and theoretical implications for human factors research and for the development of distraction monitoring and in-vehicle system testing. Distraction detection algorithms and testing guidelines should consider the variability in drivers\u2019 situational and individual spare visual capacity.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/00187208211010953","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]],"date-time":"2021-04-28T12:24:13Z","timestamp":1619612653000},"page":"792-808","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":19,"title":["A Review of Occlusion as a Tool to Assess Attentional Demand in Driving"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"65","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-8222-8540","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Tuomo","family":"Kujala","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Jyv\u00e4skyl\u00e4, Finland"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-1849-9722","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katja","family":"Kircher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute, Link\u00f6ping, Sweden"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4134-0303","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Christer","family":"Ahlstr\u00f6m","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Swedish National Road and Transport Research Institute, Link\u00f6ping, Sweden"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-00187208211010953","unstructured":"Anderson I., Bauer K. M., Collins J. M., Fitzpatrick K., Green P., Harwood D. W., Poggioli B. (2000). Alternative design consistency rating methods for two-lane rural highways. https:\/\/rosap.ntl.bts.gov\/view\/dot\/14744"},{"key":"bibr2-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/hfes.45.4.525.27089"},{"key":"bibr3-00187208211010953","unstructured":"Blaauw G. J. (1984) Car driving as a supervisory control task. [Doctoral dissertation]. the Netherlands: Institute for perception, TNO, Soesterberg. http:\/\/resolver.tudelft.nl\/uuid:dba0c3e2-f85d-4f32-b5c6-d6adf9cf4329"},{"key":"bibr4-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00423118408968769"},{"key":"bibr5-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15389588.2014.909593"},{"key":"bibr6-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2016.04.028"},{"key":"bibr7-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931214581466"},{"key":"bibr8-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2015.10.017"},{"key":"bibr9-00187208211010953","volume-title":"[Conference session]. Paper presented at the Vision in Vehicles II. Second International Conference on Vision in Vehicles","author":"Cavallo V.","year":"1988"},{"key":"bibr10-00187208211010953","unstructured":"Chen H. Y. W. (2013) A model of information sampling using visual occlusion. [Doctoral dissertation]. Toronto: University of Toronto."},{"key":"bibr80-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1071181311551396"},{"key":"bibr11-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1541931213571420"},{"key":"bibr12-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120004402030"},{"key":"bibr13-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2005.12.012"},{"key":"bibr14-00187208211010953","first-page":"97","volume-title":"Vehicle performance","author":"de Vos A. P.","year":"1999"},{"key":"bibr15-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-947X(2005)131:8(583)"},{"key":"bibr16-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1061\/(ASCE)0733-947X(2006)132:5(357)"},{"key":"bibr17-00187208211010953","first-page":"1","volume":"414","author":"Farber E.","year":"1972","journal-title":"Highway Research Record"},{"key":"bibr19-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420007497.ch9"},{"key":"bibr20-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.17077\/drivingassessment.1380"},{"key":"bibr21-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/acp.2917"},{"key":"bibr22-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2008.04.008"},{"key":"bibr23-00187208211010953","unstructured":"Godthelp H. (1984) Studies on human vehicle control. [Doctoral dissertation]. Institute for Perception, TNO."},{"key":"bibr24-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088602800209"},{"key":"bibr25-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088803000208"},{"key":"bibr26-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872088402600302"},{"key":"bibr81-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00140138508963268"},{"key":"bibr27-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872086600800203"},{"key":"bibr28-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872005774859944"},{"key":"bibr29-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872087902100201"},{"key":"bibr30-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.26.3.1106"},{"key":"bibr31-00187208211010953","volume-title":"[Conference session]. Paper presented at the Vision in Vehicles IX, Brisbane, Australia.","author":"Hoedemaker M.","year":"2001"},{"key":"bibr32-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00423114.2015.1100748"},{"key":"bibr33-00187208211010953","volume":"26","author":"Jokinen J. P. P.","year":"2020","journal-title":"Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"},{"key":"bibr34-00187208211010953","volume-title":"The effect of field of view and scene content on the validity of a driving simulator for behavioral research","author":"Kaptein N. A.","year":"1996"},{"key":"bibr82-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872006777724499"},{"key":"bibr36-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720816672756"},{"key":"bibr37-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.aap.2017.03.013"},{"key":"bibr38-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2018.02.035"},{"key":"bibr39-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720819866946"},{"key":"bibr40-00187208211010953","volume-title":"Horizontal alignment design consistency for rural two-lane highways (FHWA-RD-94-034)","author":"Krammes R. A.","year":"1995"},{"key":"bibr83-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720815595901"},{"key":"bibr41-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apergo.2003.11.013"},{"key":"bibr43-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1518\/001872007X215791"},{"key":"bibr44-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0018720819869099"},{"key":"bibr45-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TOH.2013.2295095"},{"key":"bibr46-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-2173-6_19"},{"key":"bibr47-00187208211010953","volume-title":"[Conference session]. Paper presented at the 3rd European Annual Conference on Human Decision-Making and Manual Control, Roskilde, Denmark.","author":"Milgram P","year":"1983"},{"key":"bibr48-00187208211010953","volume-title":"[Conference session]. Paper presented at the 2nd European Annual Conference on Human Decision-Making and Manual Control, Bonn, FRG.","author":"Milgram P.","year":"1982"},{"key":"bibr49-00187208211010953","first-page":"79","volume":"94","author":"Monk C. A.","year":"2008","journal-title":"Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"bibr50-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0001-4575(79)90050-2"},{"key":"bibr51-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1071181397041002121"},{"key":"bibr52-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872087001200112"},{"key":"bibr53-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872087201400405"},{"key":"bibr54-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1371\/journal.pone.0169704"},{"key":"bibr55-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1098\/rsos.180194"},{"key":"bibr56-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193127501900302"},{"key":"bibr57-00187208211010953","first-page":"29","volume":"247","author":"Rockwell T. H.","year":"1968","journal-title":"Highway Research Record"},{"key":"bibr58-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1146\/annurev-vision-082114-035733"},{"key":"bibr59-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.trf.2015.07.001"},{"key":"bibr60-00187208211010953","unstructured":"Safford R. R. (1971) Visual spare capacity in automobile driving and its sensitivity to carboxyhemoglobin. [Doctoral dissertation]. The Ohio State University."},{"key":"bibr84-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/2518-02"},{"key":"bibr62-00187208211010953","first-page":"15","volume":"195","author":"Senders J. W.","year":"1967","journal-title":"Highway Research Record"},{"key":"bibr63-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872087802000505"},{"key":"bibr65-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120104502323"},{"key":"bibr66-00187208211010953","volume-title":"[Conference session]. Paper presented at the Vision in Vehicles VIII, Boston, MA, US.","author":"Tsimhoni O.","year":"1999"},{"key":"bibr67-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193120104502305"},{"key":"bibr68-00187208211010953","unstructured":"van der Horst R. (1990) A time-based analysis of road user behaviour in normal and critical encounters. [Doctoral dissertation]. Delft, The Netherlands."},{"key":"bibr69-00187208211010953","first-page":"72","volume":"1213","author":"van der Horst R.","year":"1989","journal-title":"Transportation Research Record"},{"key":"bibr70-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0096-1523.33.5.1127"},{"key":"bibr72-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/xge0000665"},{"key":"bibr73-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001872089403600305"},{"key":"bibr74-00187208211010953","volume-title":"[Conference session]. Paper presented at the Transportation Research Board, 79th Annual Meeting, Washington, D.C., US.","author":"Wooldridge M.","year":"1999"},{"key":"bibr75-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3141\/1737-09"},{"key":"bibr76-00187208211010953","volume-title":"Safe interaction for drivers: A review of driver distraction guidelines and design implications (2015-01-1384)","author":"Young R.","year":"2015"},{"key":"bibr78-00187208211010953","first-page":"25","volume":"520","author":"Zwahlen H. T.","year":"1974","journal-title":"Transportation Research Record"},{"key":"bibr79-00187208211010953","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/154193128603000313"}],"container-title":["Human Factors: The Journal of the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/00187208211010953","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/00187208211010953","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/00187208211010953","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,4,29]],"date-time":"2026-04-29T07:52:49Z","timestamp":1777449169000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/00187208211010953"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]]},"references-count":77,"journal-issue":{"issue":"5","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2023,8]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/00187208211010953"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00187208211010953","relation":{},"ISSN":["0018-7208","1547-8181"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0018-7208","type":"print"},{"value":"1547-8181","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2021,4,28]]}}}