{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,12]],"date-time":"2026-06-12T07:52:19Z","timestamp":1781250739827,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":29,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]],"date-time":"2023-11-30T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1701302400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The aim was to systematically evaluate the usability of all public electric vehicles (EV) direct current fast chargers (DCFC) in the San Francisco region.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>To achieve a rapid transition to EVs, a highly reliable and easy to use charging infrastructure is critical to building confidence among consumers.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The functionality and usability of all 182 open, public DCFC charging stations with CCS connectors (combined charging system) in the 9 counties of the Bay Area were tested (655 electric vehicle service equipment (EVSE) ports). An EVSE was classified as functional if it charged an EV for 2\u00a0minutes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Overall, 73.3% of the 655 EVSEs were functional. The causes of the nonfunctioning EVSEs (23.5%) were blank or unresponsive screens or error messages; payment system failures; charge initiation failures; network failures; or broken connectors. In addition, the cable was too short to reach the EV inlet for 3.2% of the EVSEs. A random sampling of 10% of the EVSEs, approximately 8 days after the first evaluation, found no overall change in functionality.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusions<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The level of functionality found with field testing conflicts with the 95\u201398% uptime reported by the EV service providers (EVSPs) who operate the EV charging stations. There is a need for precise and verifiable definitions of uptime, downtime, and excluded time, as applied to public EV chargers.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Application<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The level of failure of the existing public EV DCFC charge infrastructure highlights the importance of improving the system design and maintenance to improve adoption of EVs.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/00187208231215242","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]],"date-time":"2023-11-30T05:16:17Z","timestamp":1701321377000},"page":"2528-2538","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":18,"title":["Reliability of Open Public Electric Vehicle Direct Current Fast Chargers"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"66","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6472-6500","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"David","family":"Rempel","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carleen","family":"Cullen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mary","family":"Matteson Bryan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Gustavo","family":"Vianna Cezar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, CA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2023,11,30]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-00187208231215242","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/TITS.2018.2887194"},{"key":"bibr2-00187208231215242","unstructured":"Alliance for Automotive Innovation. (2022). Planning for the electric future: Charging station attributes. https:\/\/www.autosinnovate.org\/about\/advocacy\/Recommended_Attributes_for_EV_Charging_Stations_09DEC2021.pdf (Accessed March 3, 2022)."},{"key":"bibr4-00187208231215242","unstructured":"CARB. (2022b). Final regulation order, attachment A. https:\/\/ww2.arb.ca.gov\/sites\/default\/files\/2020-06\/evse_fro_ac.pdf (Accessed March 3, 2022)."},{"key":"bibr5-00187208231215242","volume-title":"Electric vehicle supply equipment standards technology review","author":"CARB","year":"2022"},{"key":"bibr6-00187208231215242","volume-title":"GFO-21-604- clean transportation program rural electric vehicle (REV) charging","author":"CEC","year":"2021"},{"key":"bibr7-00187208231215242","unstructured":"CPUC. (2006). 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US DOT Federal Highway Administration. https:\/\/www.fhwa.dot.gov\/environment\/alternative_fuel_corridors\/nominations\/90d_nevi_formula_program_guidance.pdf"},{"issue":"39","key":"bibr11-00187208231215242","first-page":"12724","volume":"88","author":"FHWA","year":"2023","journal-title":"Federal Register"},{"key":"bibr12-00187208231215242","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1038\/s41560-021-00814-9"},{"key":"bibr13-00187208231215242","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10447318.2023.2212228"},{"key":"bibr15-00187208231215242","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/en16041592"},{"key":"bibr16-00187208231215242","unstructured":"NESCAUM. (2019). Building reliable EV charging networks: Model state grant and procurement contract provisions for public EV charging. Northeast States for Coordinated Air Use Management. https:\/\/www.nescaum.org\/documents\/model-contract-provisions-for-public-evse-5-24-19.pdf\/"},{"key":"bibr17-00187208231215242","unstructured":"NREL. (2022). Charging infrastructure terminology. https:\/\/afdc.energy.gov\/fuels\/electricity_locations.html#\/find\/nearest?fuel=ELEC; https:\/\/afdc.energy.gov\/fuels\/electricity_infrastructure.html (Accessed March 3, 2022)."},{"key":"bibr18-00187208231215242","unstructured":"NREL AFDC. (2022). Electric vehicle charging station locations. https:\/\/afdc.energy.gov\/fuels\/electricity_locations.html#\/find\/nearest?fuel=ELEC (Accessed March 3, 2022)."},{"key":"bibr19-00187208231215242","unstructured":"NYSERDA. (2021). DCFC program, program opportunity notice (PON) 4509. https:\/\/portal.nyserda.ny.gov\/servlet\/servlet.FileDownload?file=00Pt000000YDm19EAD (Accessed March 3, 2022)."},{"key":"bibr20-00187208231215242","unstructured":"OCPI 2.2-RC1. (2019). 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