{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,2]],"date-time":"2026-11-02T19:37:55Z","timestamp":1793648275437,"version":"4.5.1"},"reference-count":55,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"8","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774396800000},"content-version":"vor","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by\/4.0\/"},{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1774396800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Hum Factors"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,8]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Objective<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We aim to investigate how pilots\u2019 startle and surprise responses affect information-processing performance during simulated in-flight events.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Startle and surprise are distinct constructs, each with their own potential effects on pilot\u2019s performance during unexpected in-flight events. Prior research suggests that startle may impair performance through stress-induced cognitive interference, whereas surprise may do so via cognitive demands associated with sensemaking. Thus, we hypothesized that both startle and surprise would negatively affect information-processing performance on a secondary auditory cognitive\u00a0task.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Method<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Using a motion-based hexapod simulator and a twin-propeller aircraft model, 26 pilots each performed eight single-pilot flight scenarios, which were designed to elicit varying levels of startle and surprise responses. Linear mixed-effects models were employed to analyse the relationships between self-report startle and surprise with secondary task performance, while controlling for individual differences and differences between the scenarios.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The results revealed that higher startle was significantly associated with reduced information-processing speed. For surprise, no significant association was found.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The findings suggest that, within the context of the tested scenarios, startle appeared to impose a more pronounced disruptive effect on pilots\u2019 information-processing performance than surprise.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Application<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The study underscores the need for tailored interventions to enhance pilots\u2019 resilience to startle and calls for further research on ecologically valid methods to induce surprise for research and training purposes.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/00187208261434426","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,3,25]],"date-time":"2026-03-25T09:51:39Z","timestamp":1774432299000},"page":"1010-1032","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":3,"title":["Relationships Between Pilots\u2019 Startle and Surprise Responses and Information-Processing Performance During Simulated In-Flight Events"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"68","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-0084-1661","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jiayu","family":"Chen","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft University of Technology"},{"name":"China Automotive Engineering Research Institute Co., Ltd"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-3678-9210","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Annemarie","family":"Landman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft University of Technology"},{"name":"TNO"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6163-8097","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Alexis","family":"Derumigny","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft University of Technology"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-4578-3171","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Olaf","family":"Stroosma","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Delft University of Technology"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4700-1222","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M. 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