{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,20]],"date-time":"2026-08-20T06:18:05Z","timestamp":1787206685376,"version":"build-2736575974"},"reference-count":50,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"12","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,12]],"date-time":"2024-10-12T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1728691200000},"content-version":"unspecified","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc\/4.0\/"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000072","name":"National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1K08DE030235-01A1"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1K08DE030235-01A1"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000072","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000072","name":"National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["1R03DE031301"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["1R03DE031301"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000072","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000072","name":"National Institute of Dental and Craniofacial Research","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R03DE028983"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R03DE028983"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000072","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Dent Res"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2024,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Tissue-specific immune responses are critical determinants of health-maintaining homeostasis and disease-related dysbiosis. In the context of COVID-19, oral immune responses reflect local host-pathogen dynamics near the site of infection and serve as important \u201cwindows to the body,\u201d reflecting systemic responses to the invading SARS-CoV-2 virus. This study leveraged multiplex technology to characterize the salivary SARS-CoV-2\u2013specific immunological landscape (37 cytokines\/chemokines and 11 antibodies) during early infection. Cytokine\/immune profiling was performed on unstimulated cleared whole saliva collected from 227 adult SARS-CoV-2+ participants and 37 controls. Statistical analysis and modeling revealed significant differential abundance of 25 cytokines (16 downregulated, 9 upregulated). Pathway analysis demonstrated early SARS-CoV-2 infection is associated with local suppression of oral type I\/III interferon and blunted natural killer\u2013\/T-cell responses, reflecting a potential novel immune-evasion strategy enabling infection. This virus-associated immune suppression occurred concomitantly with significant upregulation of proinflammatory pathways including marked increases in the acute phase proteins pentraxin-3 and chitinase-3-like-1. Irrespective of SARS-CoV-2 infection, prior vaccination was associated with increased total \u03b1-SARS-CoV-2-spike (trimer), -S1 protein, -RBD, and -nucleocapsid salivary antibodies, highlighting the importance of COVID-19 vaccination in eliciting mucosal responses. Altogether, our findings highlight saliva as a stable and accessible biofluid for monitoring host responses to SARS-CoV-2 over time and suggest that oral-mucosal immune dysregulation is a hallmark of early SARS-CoV-2 infection, with possible implications for viral evasion mechanisms.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/00220345241271943","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2024,10,12]],"date-time":"2024-10-12T03:08:26Z","timestamp":1728702506000},"page":"1258-1270","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":4,"title":["Immune Dysregulation in the Oral Cavity during Early SARS-CoV-2 Infection"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"103","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-7387-2462","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"C.","family":"Graves","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"E.","family":"Babikow","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"},{"name":"Parrott Orthodontics, Staunton, VA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"N.","family":"Ghaltakhchyan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"},{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"T.Q.","family":"Ngo","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"},{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C.","family":"Liu","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S.","family":"Wang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biostatistics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"A.","family":"Shoji","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"},{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"C.","family":"Bocklage","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Biomedical Sciences, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"},{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S.T.","family":"Phillips","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"GoHealth Clinical Research Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"M.","family":"Markovetz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Cystic Fibrosis and Pulmonary Research Center, Marisco Lung Institute, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"S.A.","family":"Frazier-Bowers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Orthodontics, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"},{"name":"Indiana University School of Dentistry, Indianapolis, IN, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-1290-7251","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"K.","family":"Divaris","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pediatric Dentistry and Dental Public Health, Adams School of Dentistry, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"},{"name":"Department of Epidemiology, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-4906-7698","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"M.","family":"Freire","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Genomic Medicine and Infectious Diseases, J. 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