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In the first approach, multigroup structural equation modeling is applied to reading and writing measures given to typically developing writers to examine unidirectional and bidirectional relationships between specific components of the reading and writing systems. In the second approach, structural equation modeling is applied to a multivariate set of language measures given to children and adults with reading and writing disabilities to examine how the same set of language processes is orchestrated differently to accomplish specific reading or writing goals, and correlations between factors are evaluated to examine the level at which the language-by-hand system and the language-by-eye system communicate most easily. In the third approach, mode of instruction and mode of response are systematically varied in evaluating effectiveness of treating reading disability with and without a writing component. In the fourth approach, functional brain imaging is used to investigate residual spelling problems in students whose problems with word decoding have been remediated. The four approaches support a model in which language by hand and language by eye are separate systems that interact in predictable ways.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/002221940203500104","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,14]],"date-time":"2007-12-14T00:52:20Z","timestamp":1197593540000},"page":"39-56","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":266,"title":["Writing and Reading"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"35","author":[{"given":"Virginia W.","family":"Berninger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington Multidisciplinary,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Robert D.","family":"Abbott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington Learning Disabilities Center"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sylvia P.","family":"Abbott","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington Learning Disabilities"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steve","family":"Graham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Maryland"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Todd","family":"Richards","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington Learning Disabilities Center"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2002,1,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.85.3.478"},{"key":"atypb2","volume-title":"EQS program manual","author":"Bentler, P.","year":"1996"},{"key":"atypb3","volume-title":"Reading and writing acquisition. 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