{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,14]],"date-time":"2026-10-14T18:05:29Z","timestamp":1792001129780,"version":"4.4.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2005,3,1]],"date-time":"2005-03-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1109635200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Learn Disabil"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2005,3]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>Simulated data were used to demonstrate that groups formed by imposing cut-points based on either discrepancy or low-achievement definitions of learning disabilities (LD) are unstable over time. Similar problems were demonstrated in longitudinal data from the Connecticut Longitudinal Study, where 39% of the children designated as having LD in Grade 3 changed group placement with repeated testing in Grade 5. These results show that the practice of subdividing a normal distribution with arbitrary cut-points leads to instability in group membership. Approaches to the identification of children as having LD based solely on individual test scores not linked to specific behavioral criteria lead to invalid decisions about individual children. Low-achievement definitions are not a viable alternative to IQ-discrepancy definitions in the absence of other criteria, such as the traditional exclusions and response to quality intervention. If we accept the premise of multiple classes of low achievers, then we must develop identification systems that are valid and abandon systems whose only merits are their historical precedence and convenience.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194050380020101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,14]],"date-time":"2007-12-14T00:52:20Z","timestamp":1197593540000},"page":"98-108","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":212,"title":["Psychometric Approaches to the Identification of LD"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"38","author":[{"given":"David J.","family":"Francis","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics at the University of Houston,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jack M.","family":"Fletcher","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Karla K.","family":"Stuebing","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Houston"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"G. Reid","family":"Lyon","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, NIH"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Bennett A.","family":"Shaywitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale Center for the Study of Learning and Attention"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Sally E.","family":"Shaywitz","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale Center for the Study of Learning and Attention"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2005,3,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543067004461"},{"key":"atypb2","volume-title":"Standards for educational and psychological testing","author":"American Educational Research Association, American Psychological Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education.","year":"1999"},{"key":"atypb3","volume-title":"Joint standards on the use and interpretation of test scores in psychology and education","author":"American Psychological Association, American Educational Research Association, and National Council on Measurement in Education","year":"2001"},{"key":"atypb4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4405(88)90043-X"},{"key":"atypb5","volume-title":"Some persisting dilemmas in the measurement of change","author":"Bereiter, C.","year":"1967"},{"key":"atypb6","first-page":"11","volume":"1","author":"Berk, R.A.","year":"1982","journal-title":"Learning Disabilities"},{"key":"atypb7","volume-title":"Reading difficulties: Their diagnosis and connection","author":"Bond, G.L.","year":"1967","edition":"2"},{"key":"atypb8","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"23","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4405(87)90057-4","volume":"25","author":"Braden, J.","year":"1988","journal-title":"Journal of School Psychology"},{"key":"atypb9","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781410606297"},{"key":"atypb10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/747795"},{"key":"atypb11","unstructured":"Cizek, G.J. (2001). Conjectures on the rise and call of standard setting: An introduction to context and practice. In G. J. Cizek (Ed.), Setting performance standards: Concepts, methods, and perspectives (pp. 3\u201418). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/014662168300700301"},{"key":"atypb13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1510737"},{"key":"atypb14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8279.1988.tb00909.x"},{"key":"atypb15","volume-title":"Minority students in special and gifted education","author":"Donavon, M.S.","year":"2002"},{"key":"atypb16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221949202500905"},{"key":"atypb17","first-page":"186","volume":"13","author":"Fletcher, J.M.","year":"1998","journal-title":"Learning Disabilities Research & Practice"},{"key":"atypb18","unstructured":"Fletcher, J.M., Lyon, G.R., Barnes, M. Stuebing, K.K., Francis, D.J., Olson, R., et al. (2002). Classification of learning disabilities: An evidence-based evaluation. In R. Bradley, L. Danielson, & D. P. Hallahan, (Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice (pp. 185\u2014250). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.86.1.6"},{"key":"atypb20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1510788"},{"key":"atypb21","first-page":"204","volume":"13","author":"Fuchs, L.S.","year":"1998","journal-title":"Learning Disabilities Research & Practice"},{"key":"atypb22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/073428299401200306"},{"key":"atypb23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.76.6.1106"},{"key":"atypb24","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02796015.2000.12086000"},{"key":"atypb25","unstructured":"Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997, 20 U.S.C. \u00a7 1400 et seq."},{"key":"atypb26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1986.tb00620.x"},{"key":"atypb27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1511010"},{"key":"atypb28","volume-title":"Correlation and causality","author":"Kenny, D.A.","year":"1979"},{"key":"atypb29","unstructured":"MacMillan, D.L. & Siperstein, G.N. (2002). Learning disabilities as operationally defined by schools. In R. Bradley , L. Danielson, & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice (pp. 287\u2014368). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.113.1.181"},{"key":"atypb31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1511208"},{"key":"atypb32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02648024"},{"key":"atypb33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002246698401800403"},{"key":"atypb34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8279.1983.tb02570.x"},{"key":"atypb35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1975.tb01269.x"},{"key":"atypb36","volume-title":"Assessment of children's intelligence and special abilities","author":"Sattler, J.M.","year":"1993"},{"key":"atypb37","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"145","DOI":"10.1056\/NEJM199201163260301","volume":"326","author":"Shaywitz, S.E.","year":"1992","journal-title":"The New England Journal of Medicine"},{"key":"atypb38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1542\/peds.104.6.1351"},{"key":"atypb39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1990.03450080084036"},{"key":"atypb40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002246698001400108"},{"key":"atypb41","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","first-page":"618","DOI":"10.1177\/002221949202501001","volume":"25","author":"Siegel, L.S.","year":"1992","journal-title":"Journal of Learning Disabilities"},{"key":"atypb42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1985.tb01942.x"},{"key":"atypb43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.93.4.735"},{"key":"atypb44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/747729"},{"key":"atypb45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.86.1.24"},{"key":"atypb46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00028312039002469"},{"key":"atypb47","first-page":"G1082","volume":"42","author":"U.S. Office of Education","year":"1977","journal-title":"Federal Register"},{"key":"atypb48","volume-title":"Wechsler intelligence scale for children\u2014Revised","author":"Wechsler, D.","year":"1974"},{"key":"atypb49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4405(84)90055-4"},{"key":"atypb50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221940103400603"},{"key":"atypb51","volume-title":"Woodcock-Johnson psychoeducational test battery","author":"Woodcock, R.W.","year":"1977"}],"container-title":["Journal of Learning Disabilities"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/00222194050380020101","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/00222194050380020101","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T06:35:09Z","timestamp":1777617309000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/00222194050380020101"}},"subtitle":["IQ and Achievement Scores Are Not Sufficient"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2005,3]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"2","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2005,3]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/00222194050380020101"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00222194050380020101","relation":{},"ISSN":["0022-2194","1538-4780"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0022-2194","type":"print"},{"value":"1538-4780","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2005,3]]}}}