{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,6]],"date-time":"2026-06-06T08:53:09Z","timestamp":1780735989534,"version":"3.54.1"},"reference-count":43,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2005,11,1]],"date-time":"2005-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1130803200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Learn Disabil"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2005,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This article reviews the validity of models based on (a) aptitude\u2014achievement discrepancies, (b) low achievement, (c) intraindividual differences, and (d) response to instruction for the classification and identification of learning disabilities (LD). Models based on aptitude\u2014achievement discrepancies and intraindividual differences showed little evidence of discriminant validity. Low achievement models had stronger discriminant validity but do not adequately assess the most significant component of the LD construct, unexpected underachievement. All three of these status models have limited reliability because of their reliance on a measurement at a single time point. Models that incorporate response to instruction have stronger reliability and validity but cannot represent the sole criterion for LD identification. Hybrid models combining low achievement and response to instruction most clearly capture the LD construct and have the most direct relation to instruction. The assessment of students for LD must reflect a stronger underlying classification that takes into account relations with other developmental disorders as well as the reliability and validity of the underlying classification and resultant identification system.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194050380061101","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,14]],"date-time":"2007-12-14T00:52:20Z","timestamp":1197593540000},"page":"545-552","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":97,"title":["Validity of Alternative Approaches for the Identification of Learning Disabilities"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"38","author":[{"given":"Jack M.","family":"Fletcher","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Center for Academic and Reading Skills at the University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Carolyn","family":"Denton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Texas Institute for Measurement, Evaluation, and Statistics at the University of Houston"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"David J.","family":"Francis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Special Education at the University of Texas at Austin, Vaughn Gross Center for Reading and Language Arts"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2005,11,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02648247"},{"key":"atypb2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4324\/9781410606297"},{"key":"atypb3","unstructured":"Fletcher, J.M., Francis, D.J., Rourke, B.P., Shaywitz, B.A. & Shaywitz, S.E. (1993). Classification of learning disabilities: Relationships with other childhood disorders. In G. R. Lyon, D. Gray , J. Kavanagh, & N. Krasnegor (Eds.), Better understanding learning disabilities (pp. 27\u201455). New York: Brookes."},{"key":"atypb4","unstructured":"Fletcher, J.M., Lyon, G.R., Barnes, M., Stuebing, K.K., Francis, D.J., Olson, R.K., et al. (2002). Classification of learning disabilities: An evidence-based evaluation. In R. Bradley , L. Danielson, & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice (pp. 185\u2014250). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb5","unstructured":"Fletcher, J.M. & Morris, R. (1986). Classification of disabled learners: Beyond exclusionary definitions. In S. J. Cici (Ed.), Handbook of cognitive, social, and neuropsychological aspects of learning disabilities (pp. 55\u201480). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb6","unstructured":"Fletcher, J.M., Morris, R.D. & Lyon, G.R. (2003). Classification and definition of learning disabilities: An integrative perspective. In H. L. Swanson , K. R. Harris, and S. Graham (Eds.), Handbook of learning disabilities (pp. 30\u201456). New York: Guilford ."},{"key":"atypb7","first-page":"1","volume":"85","author":"Fletcher, J.M.","year":"1994","journal-title":"Journal of Educational Psychology"},{"key":"atypb8","unstructured":"Fletcher, J.M., Simos, P.G., Papanicolaou, A.C. & Denton, C. (2004). Neuroimaging in reading research. In N. Duke & M. Mallette (Eds.), Literacy research methods (pp. 252\u2014286). 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Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb14","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02796015.2000.12086000"},{"key":"atypb15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194030360010501"},{"key":"atypb16","author":"Joshi, R.M.","journal-title":"Annals of Dyslexia"},{"key":"atypb17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1510764"},{"key":"atypb18","unstructured":"Kavale, K.A. (2002) Discrepancy models in the identification of learning disability. In R. Bradley, L. Danielson, & D. P. Hallahan (Eds.), Identification of learning disabilities: Research to practice (pp. 369\u2014464). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb19","unstructured":"Lyon, G.R., Fletcher, J.M. & Barnes, M.C. (2003). Learning disabilities. In E. J. Mash & R. A. Barkley (Eds.), Child psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 520\u2014586). New York: Guilford."},{"key":"atypb20","unstructured":"Lyon, G.R., Fletcher, J.M., Shaywitz, S.E., Shaywitz, B.A., Torgesen, J.K., Wood, F.B., et al. (2001). 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