{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,11,4]],"date-time":"2026-11-04T23:37:08Z","timestamp":1793835428909,"version":"4.6.1"},"reference-count":70,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2007,7,1]],"date-time":"2007-07-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1183248000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Learn Disabil"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The majority of high-stakes tests from elementary school through postsecondary education include the timed impromptu essay as a measure of writing performance. For adolescents with writing disorders, this type of evaluation often presents a significant barrier. The purpose of the current study was twofold. First, we investigated the influence of handwritten, typed, and typed\/edited formats of an expository essay on the quality scores received by students with (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">n<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 65) and without (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">n<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 65) dyslexia. Second, we examined the contribution of spelling, handwriting, fluency, and vocabulary complexity to the quality scores that students with and without dyslexia received on the same writing task. Analyses indicated that vocabulary complexity, verbosity, spelling, and handwriting accounted for more variance in essay quality scores for writers with dyslexia than for their typically achieving peers. Both group and individual student outcomes are reported to better understand the needs of struggling writers with dyslexia. Implications for assessment, instruction, and accommodations are discussed with an eye toward reform efforts that target improved teaching and learning.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194070400040201","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,14]],"date-time":"2007-12-14T00:52:20Z","timestamp":1197593540000},"page":"306-318","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":43,"title":["Timed Essay Writing"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"40","author":[{"given":"Noel","family":"Gregg","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Georgia (UGA), UGA Regents' Center for Learning Disorders, Department of Psychology"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Chris","family":"Coleman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Georgia Regents'Center for Learning Disorders"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Mark","family":"Davis","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Georgia Regents' Center for Learning Disorders"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Jill C.","family":"Chalk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Georgia"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2007,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_2_1_1_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.85.3.478"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_2_1","volume-title":"Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print","author":"Adams, M.J.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Adams, M.J. (2001). Beginning to read: Thinking and learning about print. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press ."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_3_1","volume-title":"Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders","author":"American Psychiatric Association.","year":"1994","unstructured":"American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author .","edition":"4"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_4_1","volume-title":"Do students get higher scores on their word-processed papers? A study of bias in scoring handwritten vs. word-processed papers","author":"Arnold, V.","year":"1990","unstructured":"Arnold, V., Legas, J., Obler, S., Pacheco, M.A., Russell, C., & Umbdenstock, L. (1990). Do students get higher scores on their word-processed papers? A study of bias in scoring handwritten vs. word-processed papers. Unpublished manuscript, Rio Hondo College, Whiter, CA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_5_1","volume-title":"A scale for measuring the quality of handwriting of school children","author":"Ayres, L.","year":"1912","unstructured":"Ayres, L. (1912). A scale for measuring the quality of handwriting of school children. New York: Russell Sage Foundation."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_6_1","first-page":"11","article-title":"Language by hand: A synthesis of a decade of research on handwriting","volume":"12","author":"Berninger, V.W.","year":"1998","unstructured":"Berninger, V.W., & Graham, S. (1998). Language by hand: A synthesis of a decade of research on handwriting. Handwriting Review, 12, 11\u201425.","journal-title":"Handwriting Review"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_7_1","volume-title":"Longman grammar of spoken and written English","author":"Biber, D.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., & Finegan, E. (1999). Longman grammar of spoken and written English . London: Longman."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_8_1","volume-title":"Concordance programs","author":"B\u00f6ckel, C.","year":"2002","unstructured":"B\u00f6ckel, C. (2002, November). Concordance programs. Retrieved March 13, 2007, from http:\/\/www.unigiessen.de\/~ga1007\/ComputerLab\/concordance.htm"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0013188700130107"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/0013191800320207"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1511325"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/01623737024003219"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_13_1","volume-title":"Accommodations on high stakes writing tests for students with disabilities","author":"Cahalan-Laitusis, C.","year":"2003","unstructured":"Cahalan-Laitusis, C. (2003). Accommodations on high stakes writing tests for students with disabilities. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service. Retrieved July 6, 2004, from http:\/\/ets.org\/research.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_14_1","volume-title":"Improving reading comprehension: Research-based principles and practices","author":"Carlisle, J.F.","year":"2002","unstructured":"Carlisle, J.F., & Rice, M.S. (2002). Improving reading comprehension: Research-based principles and practices. Baltimore: York Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1986.tb00232.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_16_1","volume-title":"Evaluating writing: Describing, measuring, judging","author":"Cooper, C.R.","year":"1977","unstructured":"Cooper, C.R., & Odell, L. (1977). Evaluating writing: Describing, measuring, judging . Buffalo, NY: NCTE."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_17_1","volume-title":"Evaluating writing: The role of teachers' knowledge about text, learning, and culture","author":"Cooper, C.R.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Cooper, C.R., & Odell, L. (1999). Evaluating writing: The role of teachers' knowledge about text, learning, and culture. Urbana, IL: NCTE."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5014\/ajot.55.2.175"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_19_1","volume-title":"Writing with teachers","author":"Elbow, P.","year":"1973","unstructured":"Elbow, P. (1973). Writing with teachers. New York: Oxford University Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_20_1","volume-title":"Writing with power","author":"Elbow, P.","year":"1981","unstructured":"Elbow, P. (1981). Writing with power. New York : Oxford University Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-3414-2_8"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/h0042822"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_23_1","volume-title":"Reading comprehension across the lifespan","author":"Floyd, R.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Floyd, R., Gregg, N., & Keith, T. (2005). Reading comprehension across the lifespan. Manuscript submitted for publication."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/459718"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_25_1","first-page":"A1","article-title":"Teaching by the book, no asides allowed [Electronic version]","author":"Goodenough, A.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Goodenough, A. (2001, May 23). Teaching by the book, no asides allowed [Electronic version]. The New York Times, p. A1.","journal-title":"The New York Times"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_26_1","first-page":"32","article-title":"Measurement of handwriting skills: A critical review","volume":"8","author":"Graham, S.","year":"1982","unstructured":"Graham, S. (1982). Measurement of handwriting skills: A critical review. Diagnostique, 8, 32\u201442.","journal-title":"Diagnostique"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-4405(86)90043-9"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00220671.1986.10885708"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.82.4.781"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.89.1.170"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_31_1","volume-title":"Writing better: Effective strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities","author":"Graham, S.","year":"2004","unstructured":"Graham, S., & Harris, K. (2004). Writing better: Effective strategies for teaching students with learning disabilities. Baltimore: Brookes."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1044\/0161-1461.3003.255"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.92.4.620"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01761831"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-011-0297-1"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221940203500103"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_37_1","volume-title":"Written expression disorders and the adult population with learning disordersAdult learning disorders: Contemporary issues (Neuropsychology handbook series)","author":"Gregg, N.","unstructured":"Gregg, N., Coleman, C., & Hartwig, J. (in press). Written expression disorders and the adult population with learning disorders. In L. E. Wolf, H. Scribner, & J. Wasserstein (Eds.), Adult learning disorders: Contemporary issues (Neuropsychology handbook series). New York: Psychology Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_38_1","first-page":"1","volume-title":"Sublexical and lexical processing of young adults with learning disabilities and attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorderBasic functions of language and language disorders","author":"Gregg, N.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Gregg, N., Coleman, C., Stennett, R., Davis, M., Nielsen, K., Knight, D., et al. (2001). Sublexical and lexical processing of young adults with learning disabilities and attention deficit\/hyperactivity disorder . In E. Witruk (Ed.), Basic functions of language and language disorders (pp. 1\u201431). Dordrecht: Kluwer."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_39_1","first-page":"590","volume-title":"Written expression assessment: An integrated approachEncyclopedia of school psychology","author":"Gregg, N.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Gregg, N., & Hartwig, J. (2005). Written expression assessment: An integrated approach . In S. W. Lee (Ed.), Encyclopedia of school psychology (pp. 590\u2014600) New York : Sage."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_40_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Documenting decoding and spelling accommodations for postsecondary students demonstrating dyslexia\u2014It's more than processing speed","volume":"3","author":"Gregg, N.","year":"2005","unstructured":"Gregg, N., Hoy, C., Flaherty, D.A., Norris, P., Coleman, C., Davis, M., et al. (2005). Documenting decoding and spelling accommodations for postsecondary students demonstrating dyslexia\u2014It's more than processing speed. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 3, 1\u201417.","journal-title":"Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1348\/000709902158801"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_42_1","first-page":"1399","volume-title":"A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writingTheoretical models and processes of reading","author":"Hayes, J.R.","year":"2004","unstructured":"Hayes, J.R. (2004). A new framework for understanding cognition and affect in writing. In R. B. Ruddell & N. U. Unrau (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (5th ed., pp. 1399\u20141431). Newark, DE: IRA.","edition":"5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_43_1","volume-title":"Handwritten versus word-processed statewide compositions: Do judges rate them differently? Unpublished manuscript","author":"Hollenbeck, K.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Hollenbeck, K., Tindal, G., Stieber, S., & Harniss, M. (1999). Handwritten versus word-processed statewide compositions: Do judges rate them differently? Unpublished manuscript, University of Oregon, Eugene."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1983.tb00190.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_45_1","volume-title":"Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004","unstructured":"Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act of 2004, P.L. 108-446, 20 U.S.C. \u00a7 1400 et seq."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1191\/0265532202lt220oa"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_47_1","volume-title":"Wide range achievement test","author":"Jastak, S.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Jastak, S., & Wilkinson, G. (1993). Wide range achievement test (3rd ed.). Wilmington, DE: Jastak .","edition":"3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_48_1","volume-title":"Learning vocabulary through reading","author":"Johnson, D.","year":"1984","unstructured":"Johnson, D., & Pearson, P.D. (1984). Learning vocabulary through reading (2nd ed.). New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.","edition":"2"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_49_1","volume-title":"Kaufman adolescent and adult intelligence test","author":"Kaufman, A.","year":"1993","unstructured":"Kaufman, A., & Kaufman, N. (1993). Kaufman adolescent and adult intelligence test . Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_50_1","volume-title":"Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge, UK","author":"Kintsch, W.","year":"1998","unstructured":"Kintsch, W. (1998). Comprehension: A paradigm for cognition. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_51_1","first-page":"1270","volume-title":"The construction\u2014 integration model of text comprehension and its implications for instructionTheoretical models and processes of reading","author":"Kintsch, W.","year":"2004","unstructured":"Kintsch, W. (2004). The construction\u2014 integration model of text comprehension and its implications for instruction. In R. B. Ruddell & N. U. Unrau (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (5th ed., pp. 1270\u20141328). Newark, DE: IRA.","edition":"5"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_52_1","volume-title":"Test of legible handwriting","author":"Larsen, S.C.","year":"1989","unstructured":"Larsen, S.C., & Hammill, D.P. (1989). Test of legible handwriting. Austin, TX: PRO-ED."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00028312013004277"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_54_1","volume-title":"Woodcock-Johnson\u2014III Tests of Achievement: Handwriting Analysis scale: Examiner's manual","author":"Mather, N.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Mather, N., & Woodcock, R. (2001). Woodcock-Johnson\u2014III Tests of Achievement: Handwriting Analysis scale: Examiner's manual. Itasca, IL: Riverside."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/074193258800900108"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_56_1","volume-title":"Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension","author":"Nagy, W.E.","year":"1988","unstructured":"Nagy, W.E. (1988). Teaching vocabulary to improve reading comprehension . Newark, DE: IRA."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_57_1","volume-title":"No Child Left Behind Act of 2001","unstructured":"No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, P.L. 107-110, 20 U.S.C. \u00a7 6301 et seq."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1745-3984.1994.tb00444.x"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/B:READ.0000044596.91833.55"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_60_1","article-title":"Effects of computer versus paper administration of a state-mandated writing assessment","author":"Russell, M.","year":"2001","unstructured":"Russell, M., & Plati, T. (2001). Effects of computer versus paper administration of a state-mandated writing assessment. Teachers College Record . Retrieved November 17, 2004, from http:\/\/epaa.edu\/epaa\/v8n19.html","journal-title":"Teachers College Record"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_61_1","volume-title":"Using a concordance","author":"Salzmann, A.","year":"2007","unstructured":"Salzmann, A. (n.d.). Using a concordance. Retrieved March 13, 2007 , from http:\/\/www.iei.uiuc.edu\/structure\/structure1\/conc.html"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_62_1","volume-title":"Vocabulary development","author":"Stahl, S.A.","year":"1999","unstructured":"Stahl, S.A. (1999). Vocabulary development. Brookline, MA: Brookline Books."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/016146811001100206"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_64_1","first-page":"191","volume-title":"Spelling in normal children and dyslexicsFoundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia: Implications for early intervention","author":"Treiman, R.","year":"1997","unstructured":"Treiman, R. (1997). Spelling in normal children and dyslexics. In B. A. Blachman (Ed.), Foundations of reading acquisition and dyslexia: Implications for early intervention (pp. 191\u2014218). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_65_1","volume-title":"Strategies of discourse comprehension","author":"Van Dijk, T.A.","year":"1983","unstructured":"Van Dijk, T.A., & Kintsch, W. (1983). Strategies of discourse comprehension. New York: Academic Press."},{"key":"e_1_2_1_66_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/026553220001700103"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_67_1","volume-title":"Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale","author":"Wechsler, D.","year":"1997","unstructured":"Wechsler, D. (1997). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (3rd ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp.","edition":"3"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_68_1","first-page":"30","article-title":"An apologia for the timed impromptu essay test","volume":"46","author":"White, E.M.","year":"1995","unstructured":"White, E.M. (1995). An apologia for the timed impromptu essay test . Cancer Causes & Control, 46, 30\u201445.","journal-title":"Cancer Causes & Control"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/378995"},{"key":"e_1_2_1_70_1","volume-title":"Shipley institute of living scale (rev. ed.)","author":"Zachary, R.A.","year":"1991","unstructured":"Zachary, R.A. (1991). Shipley institute of living scale (rev. ed.). San Antonio, TX: Psychological Corp."}],"container-title":["Journal of Learning Disabilities"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/00222194070400040201","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/00222194070400040201","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T06:35:56Z","timestamp":1777617356000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/00222194070400040201"}},"subtitle":["Implications for High-Stakes Tests"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2007,7]]},"references-count":70,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2007,7]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/00222194070400040201"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00222194070400040201","relation":{},"ISSN":["0022-2194","1538-4780"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0022-2194","type":"print"},{"value":"1538-4780","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2007,7]]}}}