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Two case studies illustrate how these differential diagnoses can be made within a conceptual framework of a working memory architecture and generate treatment plans that transformed treatment nonresponders into treatment responders. Findings are discussed in reference to the importance of (a) considering individual differences (diagnosis of impaired hallmark phenotypes) in planning and evaluating response to instruction and modifying instruction when a student is not responding; (b) recognizing that teaching may change epigenetic gene expression at one stage of schooling, but not the underlying gene sequences that render individuals still vulnerable as curriculum requirements increase in nature, complexity, and volume in the upper grades; and (c) using evidence-based diagnoses of specific learning disabilities that are consistent across states for free and appropriate education K to 12 and for accommodations throughout higher education and professional credentialing.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219410391189","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,7]],"date-time":"2011-03-07T13:50:07Z","timestamp":1299505807000},"page":"167-183","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":64,"title":["Evidence-Based Diagnosis and Treatment for Specific Learning Disabilities Involving Impairments in Written and\/or Oral Language"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"44","author":[{"given":"Virginia W.","family":"Berninger","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington, Seattle, USA,"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Maggie","family":"O'Malley May","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Washington, Seattle, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2011,3,7]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.85.3.478"},{"key":"atypb2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0019318"},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/13803390701562818"},{"key":"atypb4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326942dn2901_8"},{"key":"atypb5","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-006-9041-y"},{"key":"atypb6","author":"Berninger, V.","year":"1998","journal-title":"Guides for intervention"},{"key":"atypb7","volume-title":"Talking Letters","author":"Berninger, V.","year":"1998"},{"key":"atypb8","first-page":"420","author":"Berninger, V.","year":"2006","journal-title":"Child psychology and practice"},{"key":"atypb9","volume-title":"Process assessment of the Learner II user\u2019s guide","author":"Berninger, V.","year":"2007"},{"key":"atypb10","unstructured":"Berninger, V. 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