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Results indicated that children from low socioeconomic households are at elevated risk of PMD at 48 and 60 months of age, as are children with cognitive delays, identified developmental delays or disabilities, and vocabulary difficulties. In contrast, children attending preschool either in Head Start or non\u2013Head Start classrooms are at initially lower risk of PMD. Kindergarten-aged children experiencing either low socioeconomic status or mathematics difficulties are at greatest risk for PMD across third, fifth, and eighth grades. Also at risk for PMD between third and eighth grades are children displaying reading difficulties or inattention and other learning-related behaviors problems, children with identified disabilities, and those who are retained. Educationally relevant and potentially malleable factors for decreasing young children\u2019s risk for PMD may include increasing children\u2019s access to preschool, decreasing their risk of experiencing vocabulary or reading difficulties, and avoiding use of grade retention.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219414553849","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,21]],"date-time":"2014-10-21T02:47:26Z","timestamp":1413859646000},"page":"305-319","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":35,"title":["Who Is At Risk for Persistent Mathematics Difficulties in the United States?"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"49","author":[{"given":"Paul L.","family":"Morgan","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"George","family":"Farkas","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California, Irvine, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Marianne M.","family":"Hillemeier","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Steve","family":"Maczuga","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2014,10,20]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0022219414553849","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0016838"},{"key":"bibr2-0022219414553849","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022219408315637"},{"key":"bibr3-0022219414553849","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.96.4.699"},{"key":"bibr4-0022219414553849","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11881-999-0019-8"},{"key":"bibr5-0022219414553849","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1367\/A04-209R.1"},{"key":"bibr6-0022219414553849","volume-title":"Bayley Scales of Infant Development","author":"Bayley N.","year":"1993","edition":"2"},{"key":"bibr7-0022219414553849","volume-title":"Cognitive assessment plan for the ECLS-B Preschool Battery. 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