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Addressing these challenges, we analyzed longitudinal patterns of growth, co-occurrence, and specificity manifesting in the math and reading skills of children with and without learning disabilities. With a sample of 498 Grade 1 U.S. children followed for 5 years, we used linear mixed-effects models to explore group-level differences among children with math disability (MD), reading disability (RD), co-occurring disability, and no disability. Findings revealed: Math and reading trajectories of children with learning disabilities parallel those of children without disabilities. Skill growth slows over time, regardless of skill level, suggesting disability-related impairments will not resolve without intervention. Impairment levels and growth trajectories of children with co-occurring disabilities match the within-domain patterns of children with isolated disabilities, supporting a longitudinally maintained additive model of co-occurrence. MD and RD show varying specificity. MD impairments are domain-specific and become more pronounced over time. RD impairments impact both domains early, become more domain-specific over time, but maintain curriculum-contingent math deficits. Findings suggest early math intervention should balance linguistic and conceptual support, as the source of a child\u2019s math difficulties may not be clear until well into elementary school.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194241312189","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,10]],"date-time":"2025-02-10T01:01:16Z","timestamp":1739149276000},"page":"411-430","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":8,"title":["Specificity, Co-Occurrence, and Growth: Math and Reading Skill Development in Children With Learning Disabilities"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"58","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0004-2631-2931","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Katherine Helene","family":"Connors","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-0854-8463","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily L.","family":"Guertin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Melissa","family":"Nichol","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joan M.","family":"Bosson-Heenan","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-7640-2071","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jeffrey R.","family":"Gruen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0001-5625-4892","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jan C.","family":"Frijters","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,2,9]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Adesope O. 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