{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,29]],"date-time":"2026-10-29T06:36:42Z","timestamp":1793255802586,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":136,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,28]],"date-time":"2025-08-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1756339200000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["J Learn Disabil"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Spelling is a vital academic skill that supports students\u2019 writing and reading development (Kim, 2020). We conducted a comprehensive meta-analytic review of spelling interventions with students with or at-risk for learning disabilities (LDs) employing randomized controlled trials, quasi-experimental designs, and single-case designs. Fifty-nine studies met inclusion criteria\u201439 group design and 20 single-case design (SCD) studies\u2014comprising 2,229 students in Grades K\u20139, the vast majority of whom were described as with or at-risk for LDs, with only one study including general education students. The studies yielded 327 spelling and word reading effect sizes that were used to answer three research questions regarding the overall average impact of the interventions on spelling and word reading outcomes, differential effects of the spelling intervention approach, and characteristics that may moderate effects. We ran four meta-analytic models on spelling interventions\u2019 effects on spelling and reading outcomes, conducted subgroup analyses on group designs for different spelling approaches, and ran meta-regression models with five covariates on group designs to examine moderating effects. Publication bias analyses were also conducted. Results indicated that group design spelling interventions had a small but significant effect on spelling (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">g<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.33, 95% confidence interval [CI] = [0.26, 0.40]) and word reading (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">g<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.25, 95% CI = [0.13, 0.37]) outcomes, while SCDs had a large and significant impact on spelling (between-case standardized mean difference [BC-SMD]\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">=<\/jats:italic>\n                    2.47, 95% CI = [1.82, 3.13]) and word reading (BC-SMD = 1.52, 95% CI = [0.83, 2.21]) outcomes. Furthermore, results demonstrate that group design spelling interventions employing whole word study (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">g<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.56, 95% CI = [0.41, 0.71]) and multilinguistic (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">g<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.43, 95% CI = [0.25, 0.60]) approaches benefit spelling outcomes, while phonemic approaches to spelling intervention transfer to word reading outcomes (\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">g<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 0.45, 95% CI = [0.35, 0.55]). Findings highlight the need for systematic replication of spelling interventions to further understand the impact on writing and reading outcomes for students with LD.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/00222194251364836","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,28]],"date-time":"2025-08-28T17:06:54Z","timestamp":1756400814000},"page":"331-358","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":12,"title":["A Meta-Analytic Review of Spelling Interventions for Students With or At-Risk for Learning Disabilities"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"59","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-3138-6140","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brennan W.","family":"Chandler","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Georgia State University, Atlanta, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6327-0054","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica R.","family":"Toste","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Texas at Austin, USA"},{"name":"The Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk, Austin, TX, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Christina","family":"Novelli","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Georgia, Athens, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Derek B.","family":"Rodgers","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Iowa, Iowa City, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0002-4315-4678","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Emily","family":"Hardeman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"The University of Texas at Austin, USA"},{"name":"The Meadows Center for Preventing Educational Risk, Austin, TX, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,8,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_2_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"*Aguirre A. 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(1998). Early intervention for spelling problems: Teaching functional spelling units of varying size with a multiple-connections framework. Journal of Educational Psychology 90(4) 587\u2013605. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-0663.90.4.587","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.90.4.587"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"*Berninger V. W. Vaughan K. Abbott R. D. Brooks A. Begayis K. Curtin G. Graham S. (2000). Language-based spelling instruction: Teaching children to make multiple connections between spoken and written words. Learning Disability Quarterly 23(2) 117\u2013135. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2307\/1511141","DOI":"10.2307\/1511141"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"*Berninger V. W. Winn W. D. Stock P. Abbott R. D. Eschen K. Lin S.-J. Garcia N. Anderson-Youngstrom M. Murphy H. Levit D. Trivedi P. Jones J. Amtmann D. Nagy W. (2008). Tier 3 specialized writing instruction for students with dyslexia. Reading and Writing 21 95\u2013129. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1007\/s11145-007-9066-x","DOI":"10.1007\/s11145-007-9066-x"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"*Berninger V. W. Vaughan K. Abbott R. D. Begay K. Coleman K. B. Curtin G. Hawkins J. M. (2002). Teaching spelling and composition alone and together: Implications for the simple view of writing. Journal of Educational Psychology 94(2) 291\u2013304. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-0663.94.2.291","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.94.2.291"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_16_1","unstructured":"Borenstein M. Cooper H. Hedges L. Valentine J. (2009). Effect sizes for continuous data. The Handbook of Research Synthesis and Meta-Analysis 2 221\u2013235. https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/2009-05060-012"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_17_1","unstructured":"*Brown B. O. (1995). The effects of a spelling word study strategy on the spelling performance of high school students with learning disabilities [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. University of Florida."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"*Bryant N. Drabin I. R. Gettinger M. (1981). Effects of varying unit size on spelling achievement in learning disabled children. Journal of Learning Disabilities 14(4) 200\u2013203. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/002221948101400405","DOI":"10.1177\/002221948101400405"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_19_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"*Cassar A. G. Jang E. E. (2010). Investigating the effects of a game-based approach in teaching word recognition and spelling to students with reading disabilities and attention deficits. Australian Journal of Learning Difficulties 15(2) 193\u2013211. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/19404151003796516","DOI":"10.1080\/19404151003796516"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Castles A. Friedmann N. (2014). Developmental dyslexia and the phonological deficit hypothesis. 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McKenna J. W. Alves K. D. Kennedy M. J. (2019). Reading instruction for students with learning disabilities in grades 4 and 5: An observation study. Learning Disability Quarterly 42(2) 67\u201379. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0731948718806654","DOI":"10.1177\/0731948718806654"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_25_1","unstructured":"*Clark Draper I. L. (1990) A study of the efficacy of a student-controlled errorless learning device in spelling remediation with urban elementary learning-disabled students [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Wayne State University."},{"key":"e_1_3_2_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Colenbrander D. Kohnen S. Beyersmann E. Robidoux S. Wegener S. Arrow T. Nation K. Castles A. (2022). Teaching children to read irregular words: A comparison of three instructional methods. 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Veritas Health Innovation. https:\/\/www.covidence.org\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_30_1","unstructured":"*Darch C. Eaves R. C. Crowe D. A. Simmons K. Conniff A. (2006). Teaching spelling to students with learning disabilities: A comparison of rule-based strategies versus traditional instruction. Journal of Direct Instruction 6(1) 1\u201316. https:\/\/eric.ed.gov\/?id=EJ755191"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_31_1","unstructured":"*Darch C. Kim S. Johnson S. James H. (2000). The strategic spelling skills of students with learning disabilities: The results of two studies. Journal of Instructional Psychology 27(1) 15\u201326. https:\/\/www.proquest.com\/openview\/450e3be32bdeb4c7fc4494cb4450b83b\/1?cbl=2029838&pq-origsite=gscholar"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_32_1","unstructured":"*Darch C. Simpson R. G. (1990). Effectiveness of visual imagery versus rule-based strategies in teaching spelling to learning disabled students. 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G\u00f6rgen R. Kalmar J. Haberstroh S. Schmalz X. Schulte-K\u00f6rne G. (2020). Effectiveness of spelling interventions for learners with dyslexia: A meta-analysis and systematic review. Educational Psychologist 55(1) 1\u201320. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/00461520.2019.1659794","DOI":"10.1080\/00461520.2019.1659794"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Garcia N. P. Abbott R. D. Berninger V. W. (2010). Predicting poor average and superior spellers in grades 1 to 6 from phonological orthographic and morphological spelling or reading composites. Written Language & Literacy 13(1) 61\u201398. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1075\/wll.13.1.03gar","DOI":"10.1075\/wll.13.1.03gar"},{"key":"e_1_3_2_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"*Georgiou G. K. Savage R. Dunn K. Bowers P. Parrila R. (2021). Examining the effects of Structured Word Inquiry on the reading and spelling skills of persistently poor grade 3 readers. 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