{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T11:26:42Z","timestamp":1777894002894,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":147,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"4","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1989,4,1]],"date-time":"1989-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":607392000000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Learn Disabil"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1989,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This article addresses the neuroimaging (CT\/MRI), electrophysiological (ERP\/EEG), and postmortem evidence as to the neurological basis of dyslexia and discusses why these sources of evidence yield what appear to be inconsistent findings. It is concluded that what appear to be inconsistencies may relate in part to limitations of these investigative technologies. Then, important correlates of reading ability and disability are discussed in a developmental-neuropsychological context, and recommendations are made for research serving to further integrate cognitive and neurological paradigms. Of particular importance, inconsistencies between the results revealed through neuroimaging, electrophysiological, and postmortem studies, on the one hand, and neurolinguistic theory, on the other, must be addressed. Articulating the neurometabolic role\u2014and particularly the nature of the behavioral correlates of the thalamus, supplementary motor area, and frontal cortex\u2014in regard to bihemispheric mechanisms related to reading in developmental dyslexia should be a priority in future research.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/002221948902200402","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2008,12,24]],"date-time":"2008-12-24T02:27:07Z","timestamp":1230085627000},"page":"204-216","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":34,"title":["Dyslexia and Neurodevelopmental Pathology"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"22","author":[{"given":"George W.","family":"Hynd","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"George W. Hynd, EdD, is a research professor of educational psychology and psychology and director of the Center for Clinical and Developmental Neuropsychology at the University of Georgia. He is also a clinical professor of neurology at the Medical College of Georgia."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Margaret","family":"Semrud-Clikeman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Margaret Semrud-Clikeman, MS, is a doctoral student in school psychology at the University of Georgia. She is currently completing her internship. Address: George W. Hynd, Department of Educational Psychology, 325 Aderhold Hall, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602."}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1989,4,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/1097-4679(196707)23:3<334::AID-JCLP2270230313>3.0.CO;2-I"},{"key":"atypb2","first-page":"195","volume-title":"Cognitive processes in spelling","author":"Barron, R.","year":"1980"},{"key":"atypb3","volume-title":"Aphasia and other speech defects","author":"Bastian, H.C.","year":"1898"},{"key":"atypb4","volume-title":"Interpretation of the 1961 Illinois Test of Psycholinguistic Abilities","author":"Bateman, B.","year":"1968"},{"key":"atypb5","first-page":"1","volume-title":"State of the science in EEG-1985","author":"Begleiter, H.","year":"1985"},{"key":"atypb6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1985.tb20796.x"},{"key":"atypb7","volume-title":"Atlas of pediatric electro-encephalography","author":"Blume, W.T.","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1973.tb05180.x"},{"key":"atypb9","volume-title":"The Boder test of reading-spelling patterns","author":"Boder, E.","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1985.01790310046006"},{"key":"atypb11","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/095952877205500108"},{"key":"atypb12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archpsyc.1986.01800010038005"},{"key":"atypb13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1985.tb03762.x"},{"key":"atypb14","first-page":"289","volume-title":"Toward a psychology of reading","author":"Calfee, R.","year":"1977"},{"key":"atypb15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1978.00500280070018"},{"key":"atypb16","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0010-9452(81)80061-5"},{"key":"atypb17","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1977.00500180040008"},{"key":"atypb18","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3171\/jns.1954.11.2.0193"},{"key":"atypb19","first-page":"338","volume":"32","author":"Cohen, J.","year":"1982","journal-title":"Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences"},{"key":"atypb20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/14640748308402483"},{"key":"atypb21","volume-title":"Deep dyslexia","author":"Coltheart, M.","year":"1980"},{"key":"atypb22","volume-title":"Developmental dyslexia","author":"Critchley, M.","year":"1964"},{"key":"atypb23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.1.5177.897"},{"key":"atypb24","first-page":"396","volume":"28","author":"Damasio, A.R.","year":"1978","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"atypb25","first-page":"325","volume-title":"Clinical neuropsychology: Current status and applications","author":"Davison, L.A.","year":"1974"},{"key":"atypb26","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1981.tb02444.x"},{"key":"atypb27","first-page":"121","volume-title":"Reading disorders: Varieties and treatments","author":"DeFries, J.","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb28","first-page":"61","volume":"4","author":"Dejerine, J.","year":"1892","journal-title":"Mem. Soc. Biol."},{"key":"atypb29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0093-934X(82)90043-8"},{"key":"atypb30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221947300600706"},{"key":"atypb31","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221948501800304"},{"key":"atypb32","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0160-2896(82)90008-3"},{"key":"atypb33","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221946800100901"},{"key":"atypb34","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02653733"},{"key":"atypb35","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/00207458108991795"},{"key":"atypb36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410050402"},{"key":"atypb37","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410070505"},{"key":"atypb38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1982.00510160045009"},{"key":"atypb39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0193-3973(81)90013-7"},{"key":"atypb40","first-page":"315","volume":"24","author":"Fisher, J.H.","year":"1905","journal-title":"Ophthalmic Review"},{"key":"atypb41","first-page":"379","volume":"121","author":"Freytag, E.","year":"1967","journal-title":"Johns Hopkins Medical Journal"},{"key":"atypb42","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0093-934X(81)90002-X"},{"key":"atypb43","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-3-7091-3338-5"},{"key":"atypb44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-4087-5"},{"key":"atypb45","first-page":"27","volume-title":"Neuropsychological assessment of the school-age child: Issues and procedures","author":"Gaddes, W.H.","year":"1981"},{"key":"atypb46","volume-title":"Paper presented at the annual conference of the Orton Dyslexia Society","author":"Galaburda, A.M."},{"key":"atypb47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410060203"},{"key":"atypb48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/cne.901900312"},{"key":"atypb49","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1978.00500360036007"},{"key":"atypb50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410180210"},{"key":"atypb51","volume-title":"The neurological basis of language disorders in children: Methods and direction for research","author":"Geschwind, N.","year":"1974"},{"key":"atypb52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(84)90094-0"},{"key":"atypb53","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.161.3837.186"},{"key":"atypb54","first-page":"486","volume-title":"Principles of neural science","author":"Ghez, C.","year":"1985","edition":"2"},{"key":"atypb55","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02653717"},{"key":"atypb56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-295X.93.1.46"},{"key":"atypb57","first-page":"371","volume":"15","author":"Gross-Glenn, K.","year":"1987","journal-title":"Neuroscience Abstracts"},{"key":"atypb58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/00207458509070819"},{"key":"atypb59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.4.5625.210"},{"key":"atypb60","first-page":"582","volume-title":"Paediatric neurology","author":"Harris, R.","year":"1983"},{"key":"atypb61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00004356-198112000-00035"},{"key":"atypb62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1981.00510110039003"},{"key":"atypb63","volume-title":"Aphasia and kindred disorders of speech","author":"Head, H.","year":"1926"},{"key":"atypb64","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1978.00500260028005"},{"key":"atypb65","first-page":"132","volume-title":"Dyslexia: An appraisal of current knowledge","author":"Hughes, J.R.","year":"1978"},{"key":"atypb66","volume-title":"Dyslexia: Neuropsychological theory, research, and clinical differentiation","author":"Hynd, G.W.","year":"1983"},{"key":"atypb67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00003446-198311000-00004"},{"key":"atypb68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/747919"},{"key":"atypb69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221948702000509"},{"key":"atypb70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0022-0965(79)90074-2"},{"key":"atypb71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.106.3.447"},{"key":"atypb72","volume-title":"Pediatric neuropsychology","author":"Hynd, G.W.","year":"1988"},{"key":"atypb73","volume-title":"Bias in mental testing","author":"Jensen, A.","year":"1980"},{"key":"atypb74","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/088307388600100202"},{"key":"atypb75","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1510314"},{"key":"atypb76","first-page":"81","volume-title":"Attention and performance V","author":"Kinsbourne, M.","year":"1975"},{"key":"atypb77","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.37.4.411"},{"key":"atypb78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8295.1963.tb00870.x"},{"key":"atypb79","first-page":"61","volume":"5","author":"Klinge, V.","year":"1977","journal-title":"Journal of Abnormal Psychology"},{"key":"atypb80","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3758\/BF03196991"},{"key":"atypb81","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.10.10.915"},{"key":"atypb82","first-page":"157","volume":"11","author":"Leisman, G.","year":"1980","journal-title":"Neuroscience"},{"key":"atypb83","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1749-6632.1976.tb25499.x"},{"key":"atypb84","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02658606"},{"key":"atypb85","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02653842"},{"key":"atypb86","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/adc.57.5.381"},{"key":"atypb87","first-page":"1","volume-title":"State of the science in EEG\u20131985","author":"Lombroso, C.","year":"1985"},{"key":"atypb88","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1984.04050190031010"},{"key":"atypb89","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0093-934X(77)90036-0"},{"key":"atypb90","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4615-8579-4"},{"key":"atypb91","volume-title":"State of the science in EEG\u20131985","author":"Maccabee, P.","year":"1985"},{"key":"atypb92","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.28.12.1220"},{"key":"atypb93","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-8749.1975.tb03467.x"},{"key":"atypb94","first-page":"688","volume-title":"Principles of neural science","author":"Mayeux, R.","year":"1985","edition":"2"},{"key":"atypb95","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-3476(81)80535-5"},{"key":"atypb96","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0093-934X(75)80076-9"},{"key":"atypb97","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.16.6.574"},{"key":"atypb98","first-page":"95","volume-title":"Child neuropsychology: Theory and research","author":"Molfese, D.L.","year":"1986"},{"key":"atypb99","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.1871.1378"},{"key":"atypb100","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01688638608401328"},{"key":"atypb101","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0093-934X(75)80057-5"},{"key":"atypb102","first-page":"103","volume":"1","author":"Ojemann, G.","year":"1976","journal-title":"Studies in Neurolinguistics"},{"key":"atypb103","first-page":"103","volume-title":"Modern concepts in psychiatric surgery","author":"Ojemann, G.","year":"1979"},{"key":"atypb104","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1212\/WNL.34.11.1529"},{"key":"atypb105","first-page":"700","volume":"29","author":"Otto, W.","year":"1986","journal-title":"Journal of Reading"},{"key":"atypb106","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/bmj.2.5420.1296"},{"key":"atypb107","volume-title":"Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Neuro-psychological Society","author":"Parkins, R.A."},{"key":"atypb108","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneurpsyc.1951.02320090038004"},{"key":"atypb109","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1984.04050160065018"},{"key":"atypb110","volume-title":"The neuropsychology of developmental reading disorders","author":"Pirozzolo, F.J.","year":"1979"},{"key":"atypb111","first-page":"224","volume-title":"Neuropsychological and neurolinguistic aspects of reading disorders","author":"Pirozzolo, F.J.","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb112","volume-title":"Neuropsychological and cognitive processes in reading","author":"Pirozzolo, F.J.","year":"1981"},{"key":"atypb113","first-page":"36","volume":"1","author":"Reynolds, C.","year":"1979","journal-title":"Clinical Neuropsychology"},{"key":"atypb114","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ana.410080313"},{"key":"atypb115","volume-title":"AMIA Congress, 82","author":"Rosenthal, J.H.","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb116","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/90.4.829"},{"key":"atypb117","volume-title":"Psychological aspects of learning disabilities and reading disorders","author":"Ross, A.O.","year":"1976"},{"key":"atypb118","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1987.00520230034010"},{"key":"atypb119","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1986.00520100053014"},{"key":"atypb120","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1528-1157.1985.tb05706.x"},{"key":"atypb121","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0278-2626(85)90052-1"},{"key":"atypb122","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330240238"},{"key":"atypb123","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-006X.51.3.406"},{"key":"atypb124","first-page":"195","volume-title":"Neuropsychological assessment and the school-age child: Issues and procedures","author":"Selz, M.","year":"1981"},{"key":"atypb125","volume-title":"Understanding reading (3rd ed.)","author":"Smith, F.","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb126","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1126\/science.6828864"},{"key":"atypb127","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0028-3932(84)90046-0"},{"key":"atypb128","volume-title":"The abilities of man","author":"Spearman, C.","year":"1927"},{"key":"atypb129","first-page":"3","volume":"4","author":"Spitzka, E.A.","year":"1905","journal-title":"American Journal of Anatomy"},{"key":"atypb130","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/747348"},{"key":"atypb131","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221948201500809"},{"key":"atypb132","first-page":"87","volume-title":"Psychological and educational perspectives on learning disabilities","author":"Stanovich, K.E.","year":"1986"},{"key":"atypb133","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/747822"},{"key":"atypb134","first-page":"1","volume":"2","author":"Sternberg, R.","year":"1982","journal-title":"Topics in Learning & Learning Disabilities"},{"key":"atypb135","first-page":"343","volume-title":"Neurologic emergencies in infancy and childhood","author":"Suter, C.","year":"1984"},{"key":"atypb136","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0093-934X(80)90139-X"},{"key":"atypb137","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/15374418309533112"},{"key":"atypb138","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1136\/jnnp.34.4.369"},{"key":"atypb139","volume-title":"Dyslexia: Theory and research","author":"Vellutino, F.","year":"1979"},{"key":"atypb140","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1176\/ajp.143.8.1004"},{"key":"atypb141","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/11167-000"},{"key":"atypb142","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/088307388600100212"},{"key":"atypb143","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/archneur.1983.04210070003003"},{"key":"atypb144","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/brain\/96.3.641"},{"key":"atypb145","first-page":"121","volume-title":"Handbook of perception, Vol. VII","author":"Whitaker, H.A.","year":"1976"},{"key":"atypb146","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0093-934X(86)90025-8"},{"key":"atypb147","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1130373"}],"container-title":["Journal of Learning Disabilities"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/002221948902200402","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/002221948902200402","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T07:07:05Z","timestamp":1777619225000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/002221948902200402"}},"subtitle":["Relationships to Cognition, Intelligence, and Reading Skill Acquisition"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1989,4]]},"references-count":147,"journal-issue":{"issue":"4","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1989,4]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/002221948902200402"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/002221948902200402","relation":{},"ISSN":["0022-2194","1538-4780"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0022-2194","type":"print"},{"value":"1538-4780","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1989,4]]}}}