{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,13]],"date-time":"2026-10-13T10:48:06Z","timestamp":1791888486329,"version":"4.3.4"},"reference-count":79,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"6","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[1999,11,1]],"date-time":"1999-11-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":941414400000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":[],"crossmark-restriction":false},"short-container-title":["J Learn Disabil"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,11]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>The present article provides a meta-analysis of instructional research with samples of children and adolescents with learning disabilities in the domains of word recognition and reading comprehension. The results of the synthesis showed that a prototypical intervention study has an effect size (ES) of .59 for word recognition and .72 for reading comprehension. Four important findings emerged from the synthesis: (a) Effect sizes for measures of comprehension were higher when studies included derivatives of both cognitive and direct instruction, whereas effect sizes were higher for word recognition when studies included direct instruction; (b) effect sizes related to reading comprehension were more susceptible to methodological variation than studies of word recognition; (c) the magnitude of ES for word recognition studies was significantly related to samples defined by cutoff scores (IQ &gt; 85 and reading &lt; 25th percentile), whereas the magnitude of ES for reading comprehension studies was sensitive to discrepancies between IQ and reading when compared to competing definitional criteria; and (d) instructional components related to word segmentation did not enter significantly into a weighted least square hierarchical regression analysis for predicting ES estimates of word recognition beyond an instructional core model, whereas small-group interactive instruction and strategy cuing contributed significant variance beyond a core model to ES estimates of reading comprehension. Implications related to definition and instructional components that optimize the magnitude of outcomes are discussed.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/002221949903200605","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2007,12,14]],"date-time":"2007-12-14T00:52:20Z","timestamp":1197593540000},"page":"504-532","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":204,"title":["Reading Research for Students with LD"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"32","author":[{"given":"H. Lee","family":"Swanson","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Education, University of California-Riverside, CA 92521"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[1999,11,1]]},"reference":[{"key":"atypb1","first-page":"243","volume":"2","author":"Aaron, P.G.","year":"1990","journal-title":"Writing"},{"key":"atypb2","volume-title":"Beginning to read","author":"Adams, M.J.","year":"1990"},{"key":"atypb3","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF01027480"},{"key":"atypb4","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-9805-9_11"},{"key":"atypb5","volume-title":"Reading and writing acquisition: A developmental neuropsychological perspective","author":"Berninger, V.W.","year":"1994"},{"key":"atypb6","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1469-7610.1990.tb00844.x"},{"key":"atypb7","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118619179"},{"key":"atypb8","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1510252"},{"key":"atypb9","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Borkowski, J.G. & Turner, L.A. (1990). Trans-situational characteristics of metacognition . In W. Schneider & F. Weinert (Eds.), Interactions among aptitudes, strategies, and knowledge (pp. 159-176). New York: Springer Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4612-3268-1_13"},{"key":"atypb10","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.80.1.46"},{"key":"atypb11","volume-title":"Teacher-effects results","author":"Brophy, J.","year":"1986","edition":"3"},{"key":"atypb12","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0012-1649.26.3.439"},{"key":"atypb13","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/747683"},{"key":"atypb14","volume-title":"Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences","author":"Cohen, J.","year":"1988","edition":"2"},{"key":"atypb15","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543066003227"},{"key":"atypb16","unstructured":"Deshler, D.D. & Schumaker, J.B. (1988). An instructional model for teaching students how to learn. In J. Graden, J. Zins, & M. Curtis (Eds.), Alternative educational delivery systems: Enhancing instructional options for all students (pp. 391-411). Washington, DC: National Association of School Psychologists ."},{"key":"atypb17","volume-title":"Theory of instruction: Principles and applications","author":"Engelmann, S.","year":"1982"},{"key":"atypb18","first-page":"323","author":"Ehri, L.C.","year":"1994","journal-title":"International Reading Association"},{"key":"atypb19","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.86.1.6"},{"key":"atypb20","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02209023"},{"key":"atypb21","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.88.4.639"},{"key":"atypb22","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.90.1.37"},{"key":"atypb23","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.88.1.3"},{"key":"atypb24","unstructured":"Frederiksen, J.R. & Warren, B.M. (1987). A cognitive framework for developing expertise in reading. In R. Glaser (Ed.), Advances in instructional psychology (Vol. 3, pp. 1-39) Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb25","unstructured":"Gleser, L.J. & Olkin, I. (1994). Stochastically dependent effect sizes. In H. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 339-355). New York: Russell Sage."},{"key":"atypb26","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Graham, S. & Harris, K.R. (1993). Cognitive strategy instruction: Methodological issues and guidelines in conducting research. In S. Vaughn & C. Bos (Eds.), Research issues in learning disabilities (pp. 146-158). New York: Springer-Verlag.","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-8345-1_8"},{"key":"atypb27","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1510693"},{"key":"atypb28","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1598\/RRQ.31.3.5"},{"key":"atypb29","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/001440299105700503"},{"key":"atypb30","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/10769986017004297"},{"key":"atypb31","unstructured":"Hedges, L.V. (1994a). Statistical considerations. In H. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 29-38). New York: Russell Sage."},{"key":"atypb32","unstructured":"Hedges, L.V. (1994b). Fixed effects models. In H. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 285-299). New York: Russell Sage."},{"key":"atypb33","volume-title":"Statistical methods for meta-analysis","author":"Hedges, L.V.","year":"1985"},{"key":"atypb34","volume-title":"Methods of meta-analysis: Correcting error and bias in research findings","author":"Hunter, J.E.","year":"1990"},{"key":"atypb35","unstructured":"Hunter, J.E. & Schmidt, F.L. (1994). Correcting for sources of artificial variation across studies. In H. Cooper & L. V. Hedges (Eds.), The handbook of research synthesis (pp. 323-336). New York: Russell Sage."},{"key":"atypb36","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1057356950110102"},{"key":"atypb37","unstructured":"Kavale, K.A. & Forness, S.R. (1994). Learning disabilities and intelligence. In T. Scruggs & M. Mastropieri (Eds.), Advances in learning disabilities and behavioral disabilities (Vol. 8, pp. 1-63). Greenwich, CT: JAI Press."},{"key":"atypb38","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10862967909547305"},{"key":"atypb39","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0003-066X.48.12.1181"},{"key":"atypb40","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/461766"},{"key":"atypb41","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4757-9739-8"},{"key":"atypb42","unstructured":"Morrison, S.R. & Siegel, L.S. (1991). Learning disabilities: A critical review of definitional and assessment issues. In J. E. Obrzut & G. W. Hynd (Eds.), Neurological foundations of learning disabilities (pp. 79-97). San Diego: Academic Press."},{"key":"atypb43","unstructured":"Olson, R.K., Wise, B., Johnson, M. & Ring, J. (1997). The etiology and remediation of phonological-based word recognition and spelling disabilities: Are phonological deficits the \"hole\" story? In B. A. Blachman (Ed.), Foundation of reading acquisition (pp. 305-326). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb44","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep2101&2_5"},{"key":"atypb45","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s1532690xci0102_1"},{"key":"atypb46","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/074193258800900110"},{"key":"atypb47","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10862968009547374"},{"key":"atypb48","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/747736"},{"key":"atypb49","first-page":"215","volume":"10","author":"Pressley, M.","year":"1995","journal-title":"Learning Disabilities Research & Practice"},{"key":"atypb50","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1086\/461705"},{"key":"atypb51","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1207\/s15326985ep2501_3"},{"key":"atypb52","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/BF02213181"},{"key":"atypb53","first-page":"157","volume":"9","author":"Pressley, M.","year":"1994","journal-title":"Learning Disabilities Research & Practice"},{"key":"atypb54","unstructured":"Resnick, L.B. (1987). Constructing knowledge in school. In L. S. Liben (Ed.), Development and learning: Conflict or congruence? (pp. 19-50). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb55","first-page":"250","volume":"11","author":"Reynolds, C.R.","year":"1981","journal-title":"Journal of School Psychology"},{"key":"atypb56","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00220671.1995.9941309"},{"key":"atypb57","volume-title":"Teaching functions","author":"Rosenshine, B.","year":"1986","edition":"3"},{"key":"atypb58","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.122.2.107"},{"key":"atypb59","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0010-0277(86)90008-9"},{"key":"atypb60","first-page":"1","volume":"1","author":"Share, D.L.","year":"1995","journal-title":"Education"},{"key":"atypb61","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002221949202501001"},{"key":"atypb62","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-1-4613-9223-1_2"},{"key":"atypb63","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1131037"},{"key":"atypb64","volume-title":"Effective programs for students at risk","author":"Slavin, R.E.","year":"1989"},{"key":"atypb65","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/074193258800900111"},{"key":"atypb66","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/1057356950110104"},{"key":"atypb67","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1598\/RRQ.21.4.1"},{"key":"atypb68","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.86.1.24"},{"key":"atypb69","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.2307\/1510661"},{"key":"atypb70","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.89.1.128"},{"key":"atypb71","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/02796015.1996.12085826"},{"key":"atypb72","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3102\/00346543068003277"},{"key":"atypb73","volume-title":"Interventions for students with learning disabilities: A meta-analysis of treatment outcomes","author":"Swanson, H.L.","year":"1999"},{"key":"atypb74","author":"Swanson, H.L.","journal-title":"Journal of Learning Disabilities"},{"key":"atypb75","unstructured":"Vellutino, F. & Scanlon, D.M. (1991). The effects of instructional bias on word identification . In I. L. Rieben & C. A. Perfetti (Eds.), Learning to read: Basic research and its implication (pp. 189-204). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum."},{"key":"atypb76","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-0663.88.4.601"},{"key":"atypb77","volume-title":"Wechsler intelligence scale for children-III (administration manual)","author":"Wechsler, D.","year":"1991"},{"key":"atypb78","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/0033-2909.117.3.450"},{"key":"atypb79","unstructured":"Wong, B.Y.L. (1991). Assessment of meta-cognitive research in learning disabilities: Theory, research, and practice. In H. L. Swanson (Ed.), Handbook on the assessment of learning disabilities (pp. 265-284). Austin, TX: PRO-ED ."}],"container-title":["Journal of Learning Disabilities"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/002221949903200605","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/002221949903200605","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,1]],"date-time":"2026-05-01T07:15:25Z","timestamp":1777619725000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/002221949903200605"}},"subtitle":["A Meta-Analysis of Intervention Outcomes"],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[1999,11]]},"references-count":79,"journal-issue":{"issue":"6","published-print":{"date-parts":[[1999,11]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/002221949903200605"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/002221949903200605","relation":{},"ISSN":["0022-2194","1538-4780"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0022-2194","type":"print"},{"value":"1538-4780","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[1999,11]]}}}