{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,5,4]],"date-time":"2026-05-04T12:10:06Z","timestamp":1777896606929,"version":"3.51.4"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"2","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,1]],"date-time":"2017-04-01T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1491004800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Med Sci Law"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2017,4]]},"abstract":"<jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Background<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>Fatalities from acute compression have been reported with soft-drink vending machine tipping, motor vehicle accidents, and trench cave-ins. A major mechanism of such deaths is flail chest but the amount of force required is unclear. Between the range of a safe static chest compression force of 1000\u2009N (102\u2009kg with earth gravity) and a lethal dynamic force of 10\u201320\u2009kN (falling 450\u2009kg vending machines), there are limited quantitative human data on the force required to cause flail chest, which is a major correlate of acute fatal compression asphyxia.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Methods<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>We modeled flail chest as bilateral fractures of six adjacent ribs. The static and dynamic forces required to cause such a ribcage failure were estimated using a biomechanical model of the thorax. The results were then compared with published historical records of judicial \u201cpressing,\u201d vending machine fatalities, and automobile safety cadaver testing.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>\n                  <jats:sec>\n                    <jats:title>Results and conclusion<\/jats:title>\n                    <jats:p>The modeling results suggest that an adult male requires 2550\u2009\u00b1\u2009250 N of chest-applied distributed static force (260\u2009\u00b1\u200926\u2009kg with earth gravity) or 4050\u2009\u00b1\u2009320\u2009N of dynamic force to cause flail chest from short-term chest compression.<\/jats:p>\n                  <\/jats:sec>","DOI":"10.1177\/0025802417695711","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,4]],"date-time":"2017-04-04T00:20:10Z","timestamp":1491265210000},"page":"61-68","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":14,"title":["Acute forces required for fatal compression asphyxia: A biomechanical model and historical comparisons"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"57","author":[{"given":"Mark W","family":"Kroll","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Minnesota and California Polytechnic University, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"G Keith","family":"Still","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Tom S","family":"Neuman","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of California San Diego, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Michael A","family":"Graham","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Pathology, St. Louis University, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]},{"given":"Lanny V","family":"Griffin","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"California Polytechnic University, San Luis Obispo, USA"}],"role":[{"role":"author","vocabulary":"crossref"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2017,4,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0025802415598807"},{"key":"bibr2-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.legalmed.2006.11.007"},{"key":"bibr3-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"K. 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Karch, \u201cPositional asphyxia: inadequate oxygen, or inadequate theory?\n                      Forensic Sci Int\n                      141, 201-2, May 10 2004.","DOI":"10.1016\/j.forsciint.2004.01.012"},{"key":"bibr4-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00000433-200003000-00019"},{"key":"bibr5-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/978-94-007-6627-3_56"},{"key":"bibr6-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/1556-4029.12210"},{"key":"bibr7-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s12024-012-9345-y"},{"key":"bibr8-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/00450618.2010.482107"},{"key":"bibr9-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2010.01459.x"},{"key":"bibr10-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/PAF.0b013e31815b4d4a"},{"key":"bibr11-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jflm.2008.01.001"},{"key":"bibr12-0025802417695711","first-page":"240","volume":"87","author":"Velmahos GC","year":"2002","journal-title":"Int Surg"},{"key":"bibr13-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/01.paf.0000114136.84700.f5"},{"key":"bibr14-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0022-5223(95)70030-7"},{"key":"bibr15-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1556-4029.2006.00296.x"},{"key":"bibr16-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005131-199206000-00009"},{"key":"bibr17-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/00005131-198903010-00012"},{"key":"bibr18-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jama.1988.03410180105039"},{"key":"bibr19-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4271\/2012-01-0582"},{"key":"bibr20-0025802417695711","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Zhou Q, Rouhana SW and Melvin JW. 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