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Reconstruction techniques are usually based on the relationship between the underlying hard tissues, such as bone structure, and soft tissues such as the facial muscles and facial features. Facial reconstruction can be a feasible alternative to identify the remains from a decomposed, mutilated, or skeletonised corpse. It is important to remember that although the outcomes are empirical in nature, the technique has been applied widely in many situations. Recent advancements in technology and computer-based techniques have increased the accuracy and validity of this forensic discipline. We consider the most commonly used facial reconstruction techniques in this paper, with a detailed description of manual 3D techniques.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/0025817221989591","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,14]],"date-time":"2021-03-14T11:16:45Z","timestamp":1615720605000},"page":"106-116","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":16,"title":["A detailed review of forensic facial reconstruction techniques"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"89","author":[{"given":"Arjun","family":"Kundu","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Odontology, School of Forensic Science, National Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Michael","family":"Streed","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Forensic Facial Imaging \u2013 SketchCop Solutions, Inc., California, CA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paloma J","family":"Galzi","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"National Center for Missing & Exploited Children, Alexandria, VA, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Abraham","family":"Johnson","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Forensic Odontology, School of Forensic Science, National Forensic Sciences University, Gandhinagar, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2021,3,14]]},"reference":[{"key":"bibr1-0025817221989591","first-page":"000134","volume":"3","author":"Arpita S","year":"2018","journal-title":"Int J Forens Sci"},{"key":"bibr2-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS11181J"},{"key":"bibr3-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-0738(95)01744-4"},{"key":"bibr4-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/0379-0738(89)90200-4"},{"key":"bibr5-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/002580240004000303"},{"key":"bibr6-0025817221989591","first-page":"A1160","volume":"104","author":"Kreutz K","year":"2007","journal-title":"Dtsch Arztebl"},{"key":"bibr7-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/S0379-0738(98)00066-8"},{"key":"bibr8-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/ajpa.1330330207"},{"key":"bibr9-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS14176J"},{"key":"bibr10-0025817221989591","volume-title":"The human skeleton in forensic medicine","author":"Krogman WM","year":"1986"},{"key":"bibr11-0025817221989591","unstructured":"Iscan MY, Helmer RP. Forensic analysis of the skull.  New York, USA:  Wiley Liss, pp.105\u2013182."},{"key":"bibr12-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/01405110310001608469"},{"key":"bibr13-0025817221989591","first-page":"215","volume-title":"Forensic analysis of the skull","author":"George RM."},{"key":"bibr14-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS13223J"},{"key":"bibr15-0025817221989591","first-page":"22","volume":"19","author":"Evenhouse R","year":"1992","journal-title":"J Biocommun"},{"key":"bibr16-0025817221989591","unstructured":"Stratomeier H, Spee J, Wittwer-Backofen U, et\u00a0al. Methods of forensic facial reconstruction. In:\n                      Second international conference on reconstruction of soft facial parts\n                      (RSFP), Remagen, Germany, 17-18 March 2005."},{"key":"bibr17-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","volume-title":"Forensic facial reconstruction","author":"Wilkinson CM.","DOI":"10.1017\/CBO9781107340961"},{"key":"bibr18-0025817221989591","volume-title":"Making faces","author":"Prag J","year":"1997"},{"key":"bibr19-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1201\/9781420036954"},{"key":"bibr20-0025817221989591","volume-title":"Craniofacial identification in forensic medicine","author":"Clement JG","year":"1998"},{"key":"bibr21-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1093\/ejo\/9.1.247"},{"key":"bibr22-0025817221989591","unstructured":"Jones M. Facial reconstruction using volumetric data. In:\n                      Vision, modeling & visualization conference 2001\n                      (VMV 2001), Stuttgart, Germany, 21-23 November 2001."},{"key":"bibr23-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1520\/JFS14175J"},{"key":"bibr24-0025817221989591","unstructured":"Eliasova H, Dvorak D, Prochazka IO. Facial three-dimensional reconstruction. In:\n                      Proceedings of the 1st international conference on reconstruction of soft facial parts (RSFP)\n                      , Potsdam, Germany, 2003, pp.45\u201348."},{"key":"bibr25-0025817221989591","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1145\/882262.882307"},{"key":"bibr26-0025817221989591","unstructured":"Kindermann K. Innovative approaches to facial reconstruction using digital technology. 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