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This method applies a proportional-differential (PD) controller to adjust vehicular flow entering the expressway mainline from on-ramps. It also utilizes shockwave analysis to dynamically determine the upstream on-ramps that have to be coordinated. In order to ensure the RCRM method can withstand traffic demand uncertainty in real-time, we establish a ramp metering stochastic simulation-based optimization (RMSSO) model to fine-tune the weighting coefficients for on-ramps and PD gains and solve it by a bi-objective surrogate-based promising area search (BOSPAS) algorithm. Simulation experiments in Edmonton show that the optimized RCRM schemes improve the space mean speed of the mainline by around 40% almost without sacrificing the number of vehicles entering the mainline from on-ramps. The outperformance and robustness of the optimized RCRM scheme by BOSPAS are also validated under traffic demand uncertainties.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/00375497251331487","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,19]],"date-time":"2025-04-19T07:17:43Z","timestamp":1745047063000},"page":"937-950","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Bi-objective simulation-based optimization for real-time coordinated ramp metering under traffic demand uncertainty"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"101","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0006-9600-5480","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Shengwen","family":"Zhao","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Central South University, China"}]},{"given":"Liang","family":"Zheng","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Central South University, China"}]},{"given":"Ji","family":"Bao","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Mechanical and Electrical Engineering College, Hainan University, China"}]},{"given":"Yanzhan","family":"Chen","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"School of Traffic and Transportation Engineering, Central South University, China"}]},{"given":"Shuaichao","family":"Zhang","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Huawei Technologies Company Ltd., China"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,4,18]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.procs.2016.04.117"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/JPROC.2003.819610"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_2","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.tra.2020.09.011"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_2","first-page":"1","article-title":"Ramp metering strategy implementation: a case study review","volume":"148","author":"Grzybowska H","year":"2022","unstructured":"Grzybowska H, Wijayaratna K, Shafiei S, et al. 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