{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T07:57:25Z","timestamp":1785571045800,"version":"3.56.0"},"reference-count":94,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1783036800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000026","name":"National Institute on Drug Abuse","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R01-DA049333"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R01-DA049333"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000026","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000026","name":"National Institute on Drug Abuse","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["R25-DA035163"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["R25-DA035163"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000026","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]},{"DOI":"10.13039\/100000026","name":"National Institute on Drug Abuse","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","award":["T32-DA035200"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["T32-DA035200"]}],"id":[{"id":"10.13039\/100000026","id-type":"DOI","asserted-by":"publisher"}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Journal of Black Psychology"],"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    Trauma exposure and structural inequities contribute to mental health disparities among Black men and create barriers to care. Black men face elevated risk from opioid and stimulant co-use, including overdose from unintentional opioid exposure, yet heterogeneity in trauma exposure among men who co-use substances is understudied. Using latent class analysis, this study identified unobserved trauma subgroups and examined associations with cocaine use in a sample of Black men co-using opioids and stimulants; most were formerly incarcerated (88%). Three profiles emerged: Low Trauma (36%), High Non-Sexual Trauma (42%), and High Trauma Across All Categories (21%). In regression models, men in the High Trauma Across All Categories class had higher odds of lifetime powder cocaine use (OR = 4.13,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; .01) and crack cocaine use (OR = 2.08,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">p<\/jats:italic>\n                    &lt; .05) versus the Low Trauma class. Older age was associated with stimulant use, while incarceration history predicted powder cocaine use only. Findings underscore within-group heterogeneity and support trauma-informed interventions to reduce overdose risk among Black men who co-use opioids and stimulants. Targeted screening and tailored services may strengthen engagement in care and harm reduction.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/00957984261461669","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]],"date-time":"2026-07-03T17:43:12Z","timestamp":1783100592000},"update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Trauma Profiles and Cocaine Use Among Formerly Incarcerated Black Men Who Co-Use Opioids and Stimulants"],"prefix":"10.1177","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0009-0978-0190","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Adrienne B.","family":"Smith","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Valerie P. A.","family":"Verty","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0003-2001-7187","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Brittany","family":"Miller-Roenigk","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Paris B.","family":"Wheeler","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Cincinnati"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Joi-Sheree'","family":"Knighton","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Danelle","family":"Stevens-Watkins","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_5_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.108388"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2025.118244"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.neuropharm.2021.108518"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_5_1","volume-title":"APA dictionary of psychology","author":"American Psychological Association","unstructured":"American Psychological Association. (n.d.). Trauma. In APA dictionary of psychology. https:\/\/dictionary.apa.org\/trauma"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_6_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamanetworkopen.2021.8049"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1014001208005"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2017.12.014"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/tra0001294"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_10_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.4065\/mcp.2009.0583"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260511430390"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/00957984221098122"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2015.01.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_14_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10926771.2023.2231384"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_15_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0028586"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_16_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2020.108224"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_5_17_1","first-page":"68","article-title":"Demystifying Male emotional development: Exploring the implications of forced gender roles on Black American males","volume":"50","author":"Dennis J.","year":"2023","unstructured":"Dennis J., Zolnikov T. R. (2023). Demystifying Male emotional development: Exploring the implications of forced gender roles on Black American males. Journal of BlackPsychology, 50(1), 68\u201390. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00957984231191868","journal-title":"Journal of BlackPsychology"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10538712.2012.659803"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_5_19_1","first-page":"5460732","article-title":"Comorbidity factors and brain mechanisms linking chronic stress and systemic illness","volume":"2016","author":"Duric V.","year":"2016","unstructured":"Duric V., Clayton S., Leong M. L., Yuan L. L. (2016). Comorbidity factors and brain mechanisms linking chronic stress and systemic illness. Neural Plasticity, 2016(1), 5460732. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1155\/2016\/5460732","journal-title":"Neural Plasticity"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/009164718301100406"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0022146510368930"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.jcrimjus.2019.101636"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/JAN.0000000000000215"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_24_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s13011-023-00561-y"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_25_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1001\/jamapsychiatry.2022.0004"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_26_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10995-015-1799-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/16066350500053497"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_28_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyt.2022.889060"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_29_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/1073191104269954"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_30_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/08897077.2013.825691"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s10464-009-9280-6"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_32_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.focus.2022.100063"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_33_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/a0036438"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2007.08.006"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/ajad.12481"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2156869316641730"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_37_1","first-page":"36","volume-title":"Investigating race and ethnicity on data collection and analysis","author":"Januszka C. M.","year":"2007","unstructured":"Januszka C. M., Lora A. C., Wollard K. K., Rocco T. S. (2007). Investigating race and ethnicity on data collection and analysis (Procdings of the Sixth Annual College of Education Reseeearch Conference: Urban and International Education Section pp. 36\u201342). Florida International University. https:\/\/files01.core.ac.uk\/download\/pdf\/46946572.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_38_1","first-page":"1","article-title":"Associations between traumatic life events and substance use among Black Men who are incarcerated","volume":"25","author":"Jester J. K.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Jester J. K., Miller-Roenigk B., Wheeler P., Stevens-Watkins D. (2024). Associations between traumatic life events and substance use among Black Men who are incarcerated. Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse, 25, 1\u201319. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15332640.2024.2326948","journal-title":"Journal of Ethnicity in Substance Abuse"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/09518398.2022.2127015"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/08982643221086071"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_41_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.josat.2023.209238"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/socsci13110570"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_43_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5772\/intechopen.106776"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/10673229709030550"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abrep.2022.100429"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/da.20751"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.chiabu.2024.107003"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/153476560100700202"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.5114\/ain.2023.134777"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_50_1","volume-title":"LCA Stata plugin users\u2019 guide. The Methodology Center","author":"Lanza S. T.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Lanza S. T., Dziak J. J., Wagner A. T., Collins L. M. (2018). LCA Stata plugin users\u2019 guide. The Methodology Center. The Pennsylvania State University. https:\/\/methodology.psu.edu\/downloads\/lcastata\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_51_1","volume-title":"Stress, appraisal, and coping","author":"Lazarus R. S.","year":"1984","unstructured":"Lazarus R. S., Folkman S. (1984). Stress, appraisal, and coping. Springer."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1046\/j.1360-0443.2003.00236.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_53_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.addbeh.2021.106889"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_54_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/2470547017713297"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_55_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2023.104049"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_56_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2025.2509262"},{"issue":"1","key":"e_1_3_5_57_1","first-page":"4","article-title":"Black males, trauma, and mental health service use: A systematic review","volume":"14","author":"Motley R.","year":"2018","unstructured":"Motley R., Banks A. (2018). Black males, trauma, and mental health service use: A systematic review. Perspectives on Social Work: The Journal of the Doctoral Students of the University of Houston Graduate School of Social Work, 14(1), 4\u201319. https:\/\/pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/articles\/PMC6292675\/","journal-title":"Perspectives on Social Work: The Journal of the Doctoral Students of the University of Houston Graduate School of Social Work"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_58_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.abrep.2022.100430"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_59_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10538712.2022.2155599"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_60_1","volume-title":"Seeking safety: A treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse","author":"Najavits L. M.","year":"2002","unstructured":"Najavits L. M. (2002). Seeking safety: A treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse. Guilford Press."},{"key":"e_1_3_5_61_1","unstructured":"National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2020 June). Criminal justice drug facts. https:\/\/nida.nih.gov\/publications\/drugfacts\/criminal-justice"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_62_1","unstructured":"National Institute on Drug Abuse. (2025). Fentanyl. https:\/\/nida.nih.gov\/research-topics\/fentanyl"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_63_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1111\/bph.13812"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_64_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s40615-024-02033-w"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_65_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2015.01.029"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_66_1","volume-title":"Manual for the spiritual well-being scale","author":"Paloutzian R. F.","year":"2009","unstructured":"Paloutzian R. F., Ellison C. W. (2009). Manual for the spiritual well-being scale (Version 1.1). Life Advance. https:\/\/www.lifeadvance.com\/docs\/SWBS_Manual.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_67_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Payne J. S. Galvan F. H. Williams J. K. Prusinski M. Zhang M. Wyatt G. E. Myers H. F. (2014). Impact of childhood sexual abuse on the emotions and behaviours of adult men from three ethnic groups in the USA. Culture Health & Sexuality. Advance online publication. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13691058.2013.867074","DOI":"10.1080\/13691058.2013.867074"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_68_1","unstructured":"Pelissier B. Wallace S. O\u2019Neill J. Gaes G. Camp S. Rhodes W. Saylor W. (n.d.). Federal prison residential drug treatment reduces substance use and arrests after release. https:\/\/www.bop.gov\/resources\/research_projects\/published_reports\/recidivism\/orepramjalcd.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_69_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1097\/ADM.0000000000000286"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_70_1","unstructured":"Pettus-Davis C. Renn T. Kennedy S. (2020). Trauma and loss during reentry: Early findings from a multi-state trial. https:\/\/ijrd.csw.fsu.edu\/sites\/g\/files\/upcbnu1766\/files\/Publications\/Trauma_During_Reentry.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_71_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.josat.2023.209079"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_72_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1007\/s11414-024-09878-3"},{"issue":"11","key":"e_1_3_5_73_1","first-page":"S76","article-title":"Emotion assessment using the NIH Toolbox","volume":"80","author":"Salsman J. M.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Salsman J. M., Butt Z., Pilkonis P. A., Cyranowski J. M., Zill N., Hendrie H. C., Kupst M. J., Kelly M. A., Bode R. K., Choi S. W., Lai J. S., Griffith J. W., Stoney C. M., Brouwers P., Knox S. S., Cella D. (2013). Emotion assessment using the NIH Toolbox. Neurology, 80(11 Suppl 3), S76\u2013S86. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1212\/WNL.0b013e3182872e11","journal-title":"Neurology"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_74_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.ssmmh.2022.100115"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_75_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.32481\/djph.2020.11.019"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_76_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.cpr.2016.09.002"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_77_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1186\/s12954-023-00894-8"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_78_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1002\/brb3.2999"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_79_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Smith A. B. Miller-Roenigk B. Palomino K. A. Malone N. Stevens-Watkins D. (2025). Family dynamics and opioid misuse among Black Americans: The mediating role of emotional support. Couple and Family Psychology: Research and Practice. Advance online publication. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/cfp0000296","DOI":"10.1037\/cfp0000296"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_80_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1037\/ort0000101"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_81_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/10826084.2013.799023"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_82_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2013.12.007"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_83_1","volume-title":"Treatment for substance use disorders","author":"Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA)","year":"1999","unstructured":"Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA). (1999). Treatment for substance use disorders. https:\/\/www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov\/books\/NBK576548\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_84_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugpo.2025.104807"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_85_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.15585\/mmwr.mm7432a1"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_86_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3390\/bs13040304"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_87_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1080\/10826084.2023.2267130"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_88_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.apnu.2023.10.005"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_89_1","volume-title":"Older Black men are disproportionately affected by the overdose crisis","author":"Volkow N.","year":"2024","unstructured":"Volkow N. (2024). Older Black men are disproportionately affected by the overdose crisis. National Institute on Drug Abuse. https:\/\/nida.nih.gov\/about-nida\/noras-blog\/2024\/08\/older-black-men-are-disproportionately-affected-by-overdose-crisis"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_90_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.drugalcdep.2023.110985"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_91_1","volume-title":"Seeking Safety (during incarceration): Benefit-cost results [Document No. 24-12-1902]","author":"Washington State Institute for Public Policy","year":"2024","unstructured":"Washington State Institute for Public Policy. (2024). Seeking Safety (during incarceration): Benefit-cost results [Document No. 24-12-1902]. Washington State Institute for Public Policy. https:\/\/www.wsipp.wa.gov\/BenefitCost\/Program\/1033"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_92_1","volume-title":"The life events checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5)","author":"Weathers F. W.","year":"2013","unstructured":"Weathers F. W., Blake D. D., Schnurr P. P., Kaloupek D. G., Marx B. P., Keane T. M. (2013). The life events checklist for DSM-5 (LEC-5). National Center for PTSD. https:\/\/www.ptsd.va.gov\/professional\/assessment\/te-measures\/life_events_checklist.asp"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_93_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1177\/0095798420930932"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_94_1","volume-title":"The new race gap in drug overdose deaths: The rising toll on Black men","author":"Windsor D. J.","year":"2025","unstructured":"Windsor D. J., Reeves R. V. (2025). The new race gap in drug overdose deaths: The rising toll on Black men. American Institute for Boys and Men. https:\/\/aibm.org\/research\/the-new-race-gap-in-drug-overdose-deaths-the-rising-toll-on-black-men\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_5_95_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.3109\/10826084.2016.1155618"}],"container-title":["Journal of Black Psychology"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/00957984261461669","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/00957984261461669","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/00957984261461669","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,1]],"date-time":"2026-08-01T07:01:09Z","timestamp":1785567669000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/00957984261461669"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"references-count":94,"alternative-id":["10.1177\/00957984261461669"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/00957984261461669","relation":{},"ISSN":["0095-7984","1552-4558"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0095-7984","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-4558","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2026,7,3]]},"article-number":"00957984261461669"}}