{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,6,29]],"date-time":"2026-06-29T10:48:13Z","timestamp":1782730093831,"version":"3.54.5"},"reference-count":46,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"11","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,28]],"date-time":"2025-07-28T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1753660800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"funder":[{"name":"Department of Science and Technology Govt. of India","award":["Reference No. EEQ\/2022\/000120 dated 03\/03\/2023"],"award-info":[{"award-number":["Reference No. EEQ\/2022\/000120 dated 03\/03\/2023"]}]}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Transactions of the Institute of Measurement and Control"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,7]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>This paper proposes an improved path planning solution for an unmanned aerial system (UAS). The proposed solution optimizes a cost function that takes path length, obstacle avoidance, turning angles, climb angles, flight height, and penalty constraints into account. The fluctuation of height in the obstacles is considered using a controlled stochastic function to make the path planning problem a realistic one. An improved version of the firefly algorithm (FA), namely firefly algorithm F1\u20133 with B-spline (FF1-3B), is used for optimization. A comparative analysis of the performance among five algorithms, namely spherical Vector-based particle swarm optimization (SPSO), FA, multi-verse optimizer (MVO), chaotic Cauchy opposition-based African vulture optimization algorithm (CCOAVOA), and FF1-3B, has been presented. The results show that the FF1-3B algorithm outperforms SPSO, MVO, CCOAVOA, and FA in terms of fitness value, smoothness, and path length. In particular, the FF1-3B algorithm achieves the best smoothness of the path, leading to less fuel consumption and better battery life of a UAS, allowing for more extended coverage and prolonged flight durations. The proposed solution promises to provide a feasible and optimized navigation for real-world UAS route planning tasks.<\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/01423312251355291","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,29]],"date-time":"2025-07-29T06:49:01Z","timestamp":1753771741000},"page":"2653-2665","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":0,"title":["Path planning of unmanned aerial systems in a static 3D environment using firefly algorithm F1-3 with B-spline"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"48","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0009-0001-7652-1203","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Subhasish","family":"Das","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Silchar, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Prasanta","family":"Roy","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute of Technology Silchar, India"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,7,28]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1109\/CEC.2017.7969578"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2019.10.014"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.compeleceng.2023.108802"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","doi-asserted-by":"publisher","DOI":"10.1016\/j.comcom.2022.07.021"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","volume-title":"Differential geometry of curves and surfaces (1st ed.)","author":"Carmo MPD","year":"1999","unstructured":"Carmo MPD (1999) Differential geometry of curves and surfaces (1st ed.). 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