{"status":"ok","message-type":"work","message-version":"1.0.0","message":{"indexed":{"date-parts":[[2026,10,23]],"date-time":"2026-10-23T07:25:12Z","timestamp":1792740312401,"version":"4.5.0"},"reference-count":51,"publisher":"SAGE Publications","issue":"10","license":[{"start":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T00:00:00Z","timestamp":1761004800000},"content-version":"tdm","delay-in-days":0,"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/page\/policies\/text-and-data-mining-license"}],"content-domain":{"domain":["journals.sagepub.com"],"crossmark-restriction":true},"short-container-title":["Pers Soc Psychol Bull"],"published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]},"abstract":"<jats:p>\n                    The trans-panic legal defense justifies violence against transgender individuals due to defendants\u2019 alleged panic upon learning someone\u2019s transgender identity. Perceived deception and one\u2019s ability to present as the gender with which they identify are drivers of intergroup hostility between transgender and cisgender individuals. Based on expectancy violations theory, we conducted two experiments (Experiment 1,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">N<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 808; Experiment 2,\n                    <jats:italic toggle=\"yes\">N<\/jats:italic>\n                    = 1,006) that examined defendant- and victim-oriented consequences of passing status and the trans-panic defense. We found partial support for our predictions: poorer victim-oriented outcomes (e.g., victim blame) and more positive defendant-oriented outcomes (e.g., fewer guilty verdicts, more lenient sentencing) occurred for passing versus non-passing transgender (Experiments 1-2) and cisgender victims (Experiment 2) through increases in perceived deception and moral outrage (Experiment 2). Our findings underscore implications for how transphobia proliferates.\n                  <\/jats:p>","DOI":"10.1177\/01461672251380438","type":"journal-article","created":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]],"date-time":"2025-10-21T13:07:56Z","timestamp":1761052076000},"page":"3379-3396","update-policy":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/sage-journals-update-policy","source":"Crossref","is-referenced-by-count":2,"title":["Passing and Panic: Investigating the Role of Passing and Perceived Deception in the Trans-Panic Defense"],"prefix":"10.1177","volume":"52","author":[{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-2316-3895","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Angel D.","family":"Armenta","sequence":"first","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Demitri","family":"Aguilar","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Kevin","family":"McAweeney","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"given":"Shelby","family":"Nincehelser","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]},{"ORCID":"https:\/\/orcid.org\/0000-0002-6921-8433","authenticated-orcid":false,"given":"Jessica R.","family":"Bray","sequence":"additional","affiliation":[{"name":"University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA"}],"role":[{"vocabulary":"crossref","role":"author"}]}],"member":"179","published-online":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]},"reference":[{"key":"e_1_3_3_2_1","unstructured":"American Bar Association. (2013). Criminal justice section [Report from the American Bar Association House of Delegates\u2019 annual meeting]. https:\/\/lgbtbar.org\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/6\/2014\/02\/Gay-and-Trans-Panic-Defenses-Resolution.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_3_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andresen W. C. (2021). Research note: Comparing the gay and trans panic defenses. Women & Criminal Justice 32(1\u20132) 219\u2013241. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08974454.2021.1965067","DOI":"10.1080\/08974454.2021.1965067"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_4_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Andresen W. C. (2024). The gay and trans panic defense: Focusing on the homicides not the court room strategy. Homicide Studies 28(3) 270\u2013291. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/10887679231217112","DOI":"10.1177\/10887679231217112"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_5_1","unstructured":"Applebaum J. (2023). Transgender in court: Judicial interpretations of gender identity from 1966 to 2022. Bulletin of Applied Transgender Studies 2(3\u20134) 129\u2013150. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.57814\/7576-x746"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_6_1","unstructured":"Associated Press. (2006 August 26). Man given 11 years in Gwen Araujo\u2019s death. Los Angeles Times. https:\/\/www.latimes.com\/archives\/la-xpm-2006-aug-26-me-sentence26-story.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_7_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Batson C. D. Kennedy C. L. Nord L. A. Stocks E. L. Fleming D. Y. A. Marzette C. M. Lishner D. A. Hayes R. E. Kolchinsky L. M. Zerger T. (2007). Anger at unfairness: Is it moral outrage? European Journal of Social Psychology 37(6) 1272\u20131285. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ejsp.434","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.434"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_8_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Billard T. J. (2018). Attitudes towards transgender men and women: Development and validation of a new measure. Frontiers in Psychology 9 387. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.00387","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2018.00387"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_9_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Bond C. F.Jr. Omar A. Pitre U. Lashley B. R. Skaggs L. M. Kirk C. T. (1992). Fishy-looking liars: Deception judgment from expectancy violation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 63(6) 969\u2013977. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/\/0022-3514.63.6.969","DOI":"10.1037\/0022-3514.63.6.969"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_10_1","unstructured":"Brown A. (2022 February 11). Deep partisan divide on whether greater acceptance of transgender people is good for society. Pew Research Center. https:\/\/www.pewresearch.org\/short-reads\/2022\/02\/11\/deep-partisan-divide-on-whether-greater-acceptance-of-transgender-people-is-good-for-society\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_11_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burgoon J. K. (2015). Expectancy violations theory. In Berger C. R. Roloff M. E. Wilson S. R. Dillard J. P. Caughlin J. Solomon D. (Eds.) The international encyclopedia of interpersonal communication (pp. 1\u20139). Wiley. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/9781118540190.wbeic102","DOI":"10.1002\/9781118540190.wbeic102"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_12_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Burgoon J. K. Jones S. B. (1976). Toward a theory of personal space expectations and their violations. Human Communication Research 2 131\u2013146. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1468-2958.1976.tb00706.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.1468-2958.1976.tb00706.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_13_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Connell C. (2010). Doing undoing or redoing gender? Learning from the workplace experiences of transpeople. Gender & Society 24(1) 31\u201355. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0891243209356429","DOI":"10.1177\/0891243209356429"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_14_1","first-page":"121","article-title":"The meaning of equality for battered woman who kill men in self-defense","volume":"8","author":"Crocker P. L.","year":"1985","unstructured":"Crocker P. L. (1985). The meaning of equality for battered woman who kill men in self-defense. Harvard Women\u2019s Law Journal, 8, 121\u2013154.","journal-title":"Harvard Women\u2019s Law Journal"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_15_1","first-page":"13","article-title":"Improving responses to online fraud victims: An examination of reporting and support","volume":"29","author":"Cross C.","year":"2016","unstructured":"Cross C., Richards K., Smith R. (2016). Improving responses to online fraud victims: An examination of reporting and support. Final Report for Criminology Research Grant, 29, 13\u201314.","journal-title":"Final Report for Criminology Research Grant"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_16_1","unstructured":"Dawson L. Kates J. (2025 August 1). Overview of President Trump\u2019s Executive Actions Impacting LGBTQ+ Health. KFF. https:\/\/www.kff.org\/other\/fact-sheet\/overview-of-president-trumps-executive-actions-impacting-lgbtq-health\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_17_1","unstructured":"Dowd R. (2021 March 23). Transgender people over four times more likely than cisgender people to be victims of violent crime. Williams Institute. https:\/\/williamsinstitute.law.ucla.edu\/press\/ncvs-trans-press-release\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_18_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Esqueda C. W. Espinoza R. K. Culhane S. E. (2008). The effects of ethnicity SES and crime status on juror decision making: A cross-cultural examination of European American and Mexican American mock jurors. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 30(2) 181\u2013199. https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/doi\/10.1177\/0739986308315319","DOI":"10.1177\/0739986308315319"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_19_1","unstructured":"Forestiere A. (2020 September 23). America\u2019s war on Black trans women. Harvard Civil Rights\u2014Civil Liberties Law Review. https:\/\/harvardcrcl.org\/americas-war-on-black-trans-women\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_20_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Goh J. X. Bandt-Law B. Cheek N. N. Sinclair S. Kaiser C. R. (2022). Narrow prototypes and neglected victims: Understanding perceptions of sexual harassment. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 122(5) 873\u2013893. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/pspi0000260","DOI":"10.1037\/pspi0000260"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_21_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Gray K. MacCormack J. K. Henry T. Banks E. Schein C. Armstrong-Carter E. Abrams S. Muscatell K. A. (2022). The affective harm account (AHA) of moral judgment: Reconciling cognition and affect dyadic morality and disgust harm and purity. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 123(6) 1199\u20131222. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/pspa0000310","DOI":"10.1037\/pspa0000310"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_22_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Haegerich T. M. Bottoms B. L. (2000). Empathy and jurors\u2019 decisions in patricide trials involving child sexual assault allegations. Law and Human Behavior 24(4) 421\u2013448. https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/doi\/10.1023\/A:1005592213294","DOI":"10.1023\/A:1005592213294"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_23_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Halberstam J. (2000). Telling tales: Brandon Teena Billy Tipton and transgender biography. a\/b: Auto\/Biography Studies 15(1) 62\u201381. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/08989575.2000.10815235","DOI":"10.1080\/08989575.2000.10815235"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_24_1","unstructured":"Hayes A. F. (2017). Introduction to mediation moderation and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. The Guilford Press. https:\/\/psycnet.apa.org\/record\/2013-21121-000"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_25_1","unstructured":"James S. E. Herman J. L. Rankin S. Keisling M. Mottet L. Anafi M. (2016). The report of the 2015 U.S. transgender survey. National Center for Transgender Equality. https:\/\/transequality.org\/sites\/default\/files\/docs\/usts\/USTS-Full-Report-Dec17.pdf"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_26_1","unstructured":"Klass G. Wilkinson-Ryan T. (2023). Gender and deception: Moral perceptions and legal responses. Articles 244. https:\/\/scholarship.law.upenn.edu\/faculty_articles\/244"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_27_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Lee C. (2020). The trans panic defense revisited. American Criminal Law Review 57(4) 1411\u20131497. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.2139\/ssrn.3481295","DOI":"10.2139\/ssrn.3481295"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_28_1","unstructured":"Luneau D. (2023 October 16). FBI\u2019s annual crime report\u2014Amid state of emergency anti-LGBTQ+ hate crimes hit staggering record highs. Human Rights Campaign. https:\/\/www.hrc.org\/press-releases\/fbis-annual-crime-report-amid-state-of-emergency-anti-lgbtq-hate-crimes-hit-staggering-record-highs"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_29_1","unstructured":"Machray K. (2023 October 20). The \u201cperfect victim\u201d myth. Empoword Journalism. https:\/\/www.empowordjournalism.com\/all-articles\/the-perfect-victim-myth\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_30_1","first-page":"79","volume-title":"Local violence, global media: Feminist analyses of gendered representations","author":"MacKenzie G.","year":"2009","unstructured":"MacKenzie G., Marcel M. (2009). Media coverage of the murder of U.S. trans-women of color. In Cuklanz L. M., Moorti S. (Eds.), Local violence, global media: Feminist analyses of gendered representations (pp. 79\u2013106). Peter Lang."},{"key":"e_1_3_3_31_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Maeder E. M. Dempsey J. L. (2013). A likely story? The influence of type of alibi and defendant gender on juror decision-making. Psychiatry Psychology and Law 20(4) 543\u2013552. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/13218719.2012.727066","DOI":"10.1080\/13218719.2012.727066"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_32_1","unstructured":"Marlowe G. (2018 November 14). Identifying Transgender: A brief history of the word \u201cTransgender\u201d. The College of Wooster. https:\/\/wgssfall2018.voices.wooster.edu\/2018\/11\/14\/identifying-transgender-janet-mock-as-a-modern-transgender-woman\/#:~:text=Virginia%20Prince contemporary%20all%2Dinclusive%2Dsense"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_33_1","unstructured":"Marshall C. (2005 September 13). Two guilty of murder in death of a transgender teenager. The New York Times. https:\/\/www.nytimes.com\/2005\/09\/13\/us\/two-guilty-of-murder-in-death-of-a-transgender-teenager.html"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_34_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"McCracken E. W. Stevenson M. C. (2017). Rape perpetrator gender shapes liability judgments: Implications for disgust and moral outrage. Translational Issues in Psychological Science 3(2) 153\u2013166. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/tps0000108","DOI":"10.1037\/tps0000108"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_35_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Michalski N. D. Bitter A. N. Nu\u00f1ez N. (2022). \u201cTrans folks are in the crosshairs\u201d: Jury decision-making and the trans panic defense. Journal of Interpersonal Violence 37(23\u201324) NP22453\u2013NP22474. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/08862605211072165","DOI":"10.1177\/08862605211072165"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_36_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Miller L. R. Grollman E. A. (2015). The social costs of gender nonconformity for transgender adults: Implications for discrimination and health. Sociological Forum 30(3) 809\u2013831. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/socf.12193","DOI":"10.1111\/socf.12193"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_37_1","unstructured":"Movement Advancement Project. (n.d.). Gay\/trans panic defense bans. https:\/\/www.lgbtmap.org\/equality-maps\/panic_defense_bans"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_38_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Pacilli M. G. Alemi M. S. Federica Spaccatini Giovannelli I. Uskul A. K. Pagliaro S. (2024). Bystanders\u2019 reactions to a woman victim of sextortion: Moral outrage victim blaming and reputational damage. European Journal of Social Psychology 55(3) 532\u2013546. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/ejsp.3123","DOI":"10.1002\/ejsp.3123"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_39_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Peitzmeier S. M. Wirtz A. L. Humes E. Hughto J. M. W. Cooney E. Reisner S. L. & American Cohort to Study HIV Acquisition Among Transgender Women (LITE). (2021). The transgender-specific intimate partner violence scale for research and practice: Validation in a sample of transgender women. Social Science & Medicine 291 114495. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.114495","DOI":"10.1016\/j.socscimed.2021.114495"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_40_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Ribeiro G. Nitschke F. T. (2024). Jurors\u2019 perceptions of transgender victims of sexual assault: A literature review of empirical research and policy review of judicial instructions. Behavioral Sciences & the Law 43(1) 7\u201327. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1002\/bsl.2694","DOI":"10.1002\/bsl.2694"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_41_1","unstructured":"Richardson V. (2009 April 23). Man gets life in transgender teen\u2019s death. The Washington Times. https:\/\/m.washingtontimes.com\/news\/2009\/apr\/23\/man-gets-life-in-transgender-teens-death\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_42_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Salerno J. M. Najdowski C. J. Bottoms B. L. Harrington E. Kemner G. Dave R. (2015). Excusing murder? Conservative jurors\u2019 acceptance of the gay-panic defense. Psychology Public Policy and Law 21(1) 24\u201334. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/law0000024","DOI":"10.1037\/law0000024"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_43_1","unstructured":"Salerno J. M. Peter-Hagene L. Sanchez J. (2016). Expressing anger increases male jurors\u2019 influence but decreases female jurors\u2019 influence during mock jury deliberations. The Jury Expert. https:\/\/thejuryexpert.com\/2016\/04\/expressing-anger-increases-male-jurors-influence-but-decreases-female-jurors-influence-during-mock-jury-deliberations\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_44_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Simons C. W. Piliavin J. A. (1972). Effect of deception on reactions to a victim. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 21(1) 56\u201360. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/h0031942","DOI":"10.1037\/h0031942"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_45_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Skitka L. J. Tetlock P. E. (1993). Providing public assistance: Cognitive and motivational processes underlying liberal and conservative policy preferences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 65(6) 1205\u20131223. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1037\/0022-3514.65.6.1205","DOI":"10.1037\/\/0022-3514.65.6.1205"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_46_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Sperry K. Siegel J. T. (2011). Victim responsibility credibility and verdict in a simulated rape case: Application of Weiner\u2019s attribution model. Legal and Criminological Psychology 18(1) 16\u201329. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.2044-8333.2011.02022.x","DOI":"10.1111\/j.2044-8333.2011.02022.x"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_47_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Thomas E. F. McGarty C. Mavor K. I. (2009). Transforming \u201capathy into movement\u201d: The role of prosocial emotions in motivating action for social change. Personality and Social Psychology Review 13(4) 310\u2013333. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1088868309343290","DOI":"10.1177\/1088868309343290"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_48_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Tomei J. Cramer R. J. Boccaccini M. T. Panza N. R. (2020). The gay panic defense: Legal defense strategy or reinforcement of homophobia in court? Journal of Interpersonal Violence 35(21\u201322) 4239\u20134261. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/0886260517713713","DOI":"10.1177\/0886260517713713"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_49_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Totton R. R. Rios K. (2019). Predictors of anti-transgender attitudes: Identity-confusion and deception as aspects of distrust. Self and Identity 20(4) 496\u2013514. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/15298868.2019.1621928","DOI":"10.1080\/15298868.2019.1621928"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_50_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Totton R. R. Rios K. Shogren N. (2023). Distrusted disclosures: Deception drives anti-transgender but not anti-atheist prejudice. Frontiers in Psychology 13 1006107. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.1006107","DOI":"10.3389\/fpsyg.2022.1006107"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_51_1","unstructured":"White D. (2021 May 3). A multinational overview of the LGBTQ+ panic defense in remembrance to its victims [Review]. https:\/\/wp.towson.edu\/iajournal\/2021\/05\/03\/a-multinational-overview-of-the-lgbtq-panic-defense-in-remembrance-to-its-victims\/"},{"key":"e_1_3_3_52_1","doi-asserted-by":"crossref","unstructured":"Wiest J. B. Duffy M. (2013). The impact of gender roles on verdicts and sentences in cases of filicide. Criminal Justice Studies 26(3) 347\u2013365. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1080\/1478601x.2012.733873","DOI":"10.1080\/1478601X.2012.733873"}],"container-title":["Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin"],"original-title":[],"language":"en","link":[{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/01461672251380438","content-type":"application\/pdf","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/full-xml\/10.1177\/01461672251380438","content-type":"application\/xml","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"text-mining"},{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/pdf\/10.1177\/01461672251380438","content-type":"unspecified","content-version":"vor","intended-application":"similarity-checking"}],"deposited":{"date-parts":[[2026,8,31]],"date-time":"2026-08-31T06:22:42Z","timestamp":1788157362000},"score":1,"resource":{"primary":{"URL":"https:\/\/journals.sagepub.com\/doi\/10.1177\/01461672251380438"}},"subtitle":[],"short-title":[],"issued":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]},"references-count":51,"journal-issue":{"issue":"10","published-print":{"date-parts":[[2026,10]]}},"alternative-id":["10.1177\/01461672251380438"],"URL":"https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/01461672251380438","relation":{},"ISSN":["0146-1672","1552-7433"],"issn-type":[{"value":"0146-1672","type":"print"},{"value":"1552-7433","type":"electronic"}],"subject":[],"published":{"date-parts":[[2025,10,21]]}}}